{"data": [{"title": "Nathalie Loiseau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Loiseau (born 1 June, 1964) is a French diplomat and academic administrator. She was the director of the \u00c9cole nationale d'administration (ENA) from 2012 to 2017. Since 21 June, 2017, she has served as the French Minister for European Affairs. Nathalie Loiseau was born on 1 June, 1964 in Neuilly-sur-Seine. Her father was a corporate consultant in mergers and acquisitions. Loiseau graduated from Sciences Po. She also studied Chinese language at the Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales."}, {"context": " Loiseau joined the French foreign service in 1986. She served as a diplomat in Indonesia from 1990 to 1992. She was an advisor to Foreign Minister Alain Jupp\u00e9 from 1993 to 1995. She later served diplomatic missions in Dakar, Senegal and Rabat, Morocco. She served as the Communications Director at the Embassy of France, Washington, D.C. from 2002 to 2007. She was the head of Human Resources at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 2009 to 2011, and as its chief of staff from 2011 to 2012. Loiseau was the director of the \u00c9cole nationale d'administration (ENA) between 2012 and 2017. On 21 June, 2017, she succeeded Marielle de Sarnez as the French Minister for European Affairs.  Loiseau is married, and she has four children. She is a Roman Catholic, and a feminist."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Loriers", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Loriers (born 27 October 1966, Namur) is a Belgian jazz pianist and composer. In 1991 Loriers formed her own quartet with Kurt Van Herck (saxophone), Philippe Aerts (double bass) and Mimi Verderame (drums). She also has her own trio with Salvatore La Rocca (double bass) and Hans van Oosterhout (drums). She won the 1999 Golden Django for best French-speaking artist. She has worked with Philip Catherine, Toots Thielemans, Lee Konitz, Aldo Romano, Charlie Mariano, Christian Escoud\u00e9, David Linx, Diederik Wissels, Emanuele Cisi, Gianluigi Trovesi, Ivan Paduart, Jacques Pelzer, Laurent Blondiau, and Steve Houben."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Luca", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Luca (born 1966) is a French research director at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), an anthropologist and a sociologist of religions. She is deputy director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Studies of Religious Facts at the \u00c9cole des hautes \u00e9tudes en sciences sociales and co-editor-in-chief of the French review \"Archives de sciences sociales des religions\" with Pierre Lassave. She was a member of the French government agency monitoring and combatting cultic deviances MIVILUDES from March 2003 to November 2005. She resigned on the ground that she refused to participate in a predictable hardening of policy of this organization.  She wrote many books on groups she defined as \"cults\" and is regularly interviewed in the media, and by anti-cult organizations on this issue. She said she is not in favour of the establishment of a list of cults."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Lunghi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie-Kathleen Mary Lunghi-Joff\u00e9 (born 26 August 1986) is an English actress. The daughter of actress Cherie Lunghi and director Roland Joff\u00e9, and half-sister of Rowan Joff\u00e9, she may be best known for her roles as Geri West in the BBC Three teenager drama \"The Things I Haven't Told You\", and Princess Isabelle in the ITV1 comedy drama \"The Palace\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Lupino", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie (\"Natalina\") Lupino (born June 13, 1963 in Valenciennes, Nord) is a retired female judoka from France. She claimed the bronze medal in the Women's Heavyweight (+ 72\u00a0kg) division at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. In the bronze medal match she defeated Germany's Claudia Weber."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Magnan", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Magnan (November 29, 1956 \u2013 October 15, 2016) was a media theoretician and activist, a cyber-feminist, and a film director. She taught at both universities and art schools, and is known for initiating projects linking Internet activism and sailing with the \"Sailing for Geeks\" project. She also co-organised the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Film Festival in 1984. She died at home of breast cancer. After graduating with a Bachelor of Art degree at the University of Nanterre, Paris X, she continued her studies in the United States and obtained a Master of Fine Arts at the Visual Studies Workshop in Rochester, New York, where she met Catherine Lord, Mario Biagioli, Skuta Helgason and Lisa Bloom. She obtained a Qualifying Exam at the University of California, Santa Cruz, where she met Teresa de Lauretis, who was working in the Women Studies department. In History of Consciousness, she met James Clifford and Donna Haraway, who took her as her assistant."}, {"context": " She started her teaching career as lecturer at the University of California, Northridge and Chapman University in Orange, where she taught an introductory class on photography during the 1984\u201385 school year. She was assistant professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz from 1986 to 1990, where she taught media studies, cultural studies and the history of photography. Upon returning to France, she sought to share her American experiences in her teachings, films, publications and events that she organised and participated in."}, {"context": " University of Paris VIII. In 1998 she became a full professor at the \u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure d'art in Dijon. In 2007, Paul Devautour invited her to come teach at the \u00c9cole nationale sup\u00e9rieure d'art in Bourges, where she taught until 2012. One of her classes entitled, \"Genre\", which she gave in association with Giovanna Zapperi, was thought of as a space for pedagogical innovations within which she organised a lecture series with C. Lord, Paul Preciado, Shu Lea Chang, Yann Beauvais, Patrick Cardon... In 2012, she invited A-LI-CE6 (Claire Fristot) to give a VJing workshop. She established links and exchanges with Luang Prabang (Entr'\u00e9coles, 2008 and 2010) and with the University of California in Irvine (CRUde1 in the US and CRUde2 in France). In Bourges, she created collaborations with Emmetrop and also with Bandits Mages. Her teachings focus on the analysis and critique of media on a feminist, queer and postcolonial point of view. More than transmitting knowledge, she wants to create a method, a trans-disciplinary process that leads to the conquest of autonomy."}, {"context": " A media theorist and activist, she published two books translated from English and German into French : \"La Vid\u00e9o : entre art et communication\", followed by \"Connexions : arts, r\u00e9seaux, m\u00e9dias, \"with Annick Bureaud. She managed the French distribution lists Nettime and CEDAR, the coordination of all French art schools. Nathalie Magnan took part in a number of events of all kind, related to several parts of her expertise. In 2000, Isea, the international symposium on electronic arts, was organized in Paris. Not a single woman was invited. A hundred women met at Ensba on Nathalie Magnan's initiative and were welcomed by Mathilde Ferrer - together, they held an Isea counter-event. Every woman had 5 minutes to talk about her work. This is the first time that these women gained some public notoriety."}, {"context": " In the USA, she took part in public access televisions and tactical media. She made several movies with the collectives\" Paper Tiger Television\" and \"Deep Dish TV, \"including \"The Gringo in Ma\u00f1analand.\" Magnan is one of the French pioneers of cyberfeminism. She created the website Cyberf\u00e9minismes.org. In 1999, she was invited to the Canalweb show \"Les P\u00e9n\u00e9lopes\", to talk about cyberfeminism. In 2000, she organised the ISEA off event in Paris. The same year, she took part in the creation of a women's TV show for the local Aubervilliers television, called SixSex, as well as a show on the dangers of tampons on women."}, {"context": " In 2001, she was part of the \"Very Cyberfeminist International\" festival in Hamburg. In 2002, she translated and published the \"Cyborg Manifesto\" by Donna Haraway, which she then published in 2007. She organized a presentation of women artists active in the digital world, Openmic cyberfem, at the Maison des M\u00e9tallos, and organized Gender Changer Academy workshops for ZELIG: a week of workshops, demos, meetings, and debates on the subject of communication, networks, open source software and Internet activism. She created the Chiennes de Garde website and managed this feminist online forum until June 21, 2003."}, {"context": " In 2008, she organized the Femmes et R\u00e9seaux (\"Women and Networks\") meeting in Paris with Isabelle Arvers and Anne Roquigny. She talked about Feminism and Cyberfem at the Master of Advanced Studies of the Zurich University of the Arts in 2009, and in March 2010 in Paris. On March 7\u20138, 2015, she was part of the Wikipedia \"Art+Feminism Editathon\", in Paris. On June 6, she talked about tactical media during \"Performing Opposition\" in Aubervilliers. Nathalie Magnan invented the concept of \"Sailing for geeks\", combining cybertechnologies and the rigorous logic of sailing. \"Sailing for geeks 1\" is held in Finland, at Isea 2004, and \"Sailing for geeks 2\", in 2005, lead people to explore sailing conditions in the Gibraltar detroit, to meet people trying to escape the Moroccan coast and come to Europe."}, {"context": " Her last public interventions are held in 2015. On November 21, 2015, she talked about \"Blackmarket for Useful knowledge and Non Knowledge\" at the Mus\u00e9e de l'Homme. Nathalie Magnan was a co-organiser of the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Film Festival in 1984. In the 1990s, she took part in the \"New Queer Cinema\" festival at the Paris American Center. In 1994, she co-founded the Paris Gay and Lesbian Film Festival, and she was its president in 2001 and 2002. In December 1995, she joined Lesborama to come to the Lille festival \"Questions de genre \u2013 100 ans de cin\u00e9ma gai et lesbien \u2013 10 ans de pr\u00e9vention\", which is the first Gay Night at Canal+.  In 1992, she wrote for the periodical Gai Pied."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Makoma", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Makoma (born February 24, 1982), is a Congolese Dutch singer-songwriter. She was the lead singer for the group Makoma and she later embarked on a solo musical career on her own. She took part in the Dutch \"Idols\" singing competition in its fourth season reaching the final and finishing as runner-up to Nikki Kerkhof. As a result, she was signed to Sony BMG. She also took part in Dutch \"Dancing With the Stars\" coming second (2009), in \"De Mattheus Masterclass\". In Nouveau Testament / Makoma"}, {"context": " Nathalie Makoma started singing with her family group in 1993 when the band was known as \"Nouveau Testament\". The group was renamed Makoma and was made up of seven members (three brothers, three sisters and one non-family, whom is also one of her sister's boyfriend). They were very successful singing in Lingala language and in English and French as well. When Nathalie was fourteen, she moved back to the Netherlands with her family and started studying Onstage Performance at the Rockacademie in Tilburg. At the same time the Makoma band kept on performing becoming more successful and travelling around the whole world. Due to the success of the band, Nathalie had to quit her education."}, {"context": " In 2002, the group won the Best African Music Group, at Kora South African Music Awards. and they had worldwide success in gospel music. Initial solo career Being the main vocalist, Nathalie also tried to develop a solo music career starting 2002 with her initial album \"On Faith\" (2002). The album was rereleased as \"GoGospel Edition\" (2003) with additional tracks. In 2004, she left Makoma to get established in England and later in Ireland. In 2005, she released a second solo album called \"I Saw the Light\"."}, {"context": " Idols In 2007-2008, she returned to the Netherlands to take part in season 4 of Dutch \"Idols\" and finished runner-up to the eventual winner Nikki Kerkhof. The jury called her the \"new Tina Turner\" and \"a real dancing queen\". During the competition, her family group Makoma made a guest appearance on the competition final with Nathalie singing \"Ola Ol\u00e9\" in English with her. After \"Idols\", Nathalie signed a record deal with Sony BMG and toured the Netherlands, performing in more than 150 shows in one year."}, {"context": " Dancing With the Stars In 2009, Nathalie took part in the Dutch version of the \"Dancing With the Stars\" with her dance partner Peter. She reached the final, and finished second to former Idols-winner Jamai Loman and his partner Gwyneth van Rijn. De Mattheus Masterclass In 2010 took part in the second season of the program \"De Mattheus Masterclass\" of non-classically trained artists, to perform music by Bach at the church St. Vituskerk in Hilversum. In December 2008, she participated in the RTL 4 program \"Alles is kerst\". In the show she sang with singer Brace the song \"All I Want for Christmas Is You\" from Mariah Carey.  Nathalie's main single after \"Idols\" was \"I Won't Forget\", a song that was also remixed by DJ Paul van Dyk. The song was included in Nathalie's solo album \"Dance4Life\". A second single \"I Just Wanna Dance\", an R&B, pop an dance track followed. In 2010 She left the Sony BMG, and she is currently unsigned singer who is hoping to make Worldwide Music. She signed 2014 to her own record label NM HOUSE MUSIC and released her new single \"One More Try\" on August 2014."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Male\u0301part", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Mal\u00e9part (born c. 1973) is a Canadian politician. She was a City Councillor in Montreal, Quebec. She was born in Montreal about 1973 and was the daughter of politician Jean-Claude Mal\u00e9part, who was Liberal Member of the House of Commons from 1979 to 1989. She was elected to the City Council as a Vision Montreal candidate in 1994 in the district of Maisonneuve. She crossed the floor to sit as an Independent in 1997 and did not run for re-election in 1998. Mal\u00e9part ran as the Liberal candidate in a 2006 by-election in the riding of Sainte-Marie\u2013Saint-Jacques, but was defeated by former colleague Martin Lemay."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Mallet", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Mallet is a Canadian mystery, science fiction and fantasy writer. She grew up in Shippagan, New Brunswick, but now resides in Prince George, British Columbia. Her debut novel,\"The Princes of the Golden Cage\" published by Night Shade Books in 2007, is the first installment in the Prince Amir Mystery series. The second book in the series, \"The King\u2019s Daughters\", is scheduled for 2008."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Manfrino", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Manfrino is a French soprano. For UNIVERSAL- DECCA, She recorded her first disc, \"French Heroines\" with The Monte-Carlo Philharmonic Orchestra, DECCA label, which received the Golden Orpheus and the \"Georg Solti prize\". Her second solo recording album, \"M\u00e9ditations\", is a tribute to Jules Massenet, with the Monte-Carlo philharmonic orchestra conducted by Michel Plasson. She was given the medal of chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the minister of culture in 2011. In November 2001, Nathalie Manfrino makes her debut on stage as M\u00e9lisande in Debussy\u2019s \u201cPELLEAS et MELISANDE\u201d at the Marseille Opera House, and in Toulouse\u2019s Theatre du Capitole. July 2003 sees Nathalie as Roxane in Alfano\u2019s \u201cCyrano de Bergerac\u201d in Montpellier\u2019s Opera-Com\u00e9die and for the Radio-France Festival (DVD-Deutsche Grammophon)."}, {"context": " Since, on stage she has been: Marguerite - FAUST Gounod, Roxane - CYRANO Alfano, Michaela - CARMEN Bizet, Sarah-LE REVENANT, Eurydice-ORPH\u00c9E Gluck, Juliette - ROMEO Gounod, Fiordiligi - COSI Mozart, Rozenn - LE ROI D\u2019YS, Manon - MANON Massenet, Mimi - BOH\u00c8ME Puccini, Tha\u00efs - THA\u00cfS Massenet, H\u00e9ro - B\u00c9ATRICE et BENEDICT Berlioz, Le\u00efla - P\u00c9CHEURS Bizet, Mireille - MIREILLE Gounod, Lodoiska - LODOISKA Cherubini, Clelia Conti - CHARTREUSE DE PARME Sauguet, la princesse Saamcheddine - MAROUF Henri Rabaud, Gilda - RIGOLETTO Verdi, Violetta - TRAVIATA Verdi."}, {"context": " She has appeared with Placido Domingo and also Roberto Alagna, notably in the role of Roxane in Alfano's \"Cyrano de Bergerac\". In recordings, she has specialised in rarer French operatic repertoire including forgotten works such as Debussy's \"Rodrigue et Chim\u00e8ne.\", Le Roi Artus from Ernest Chausson. On stage, Louise de Mezi\u00e8res from Jules Massenet, La Chartreuse de Parme from Sauguet, Marouf from Rabaud, Le Roi d'Ys from Lalo... Her repertoire as a lyrical soprano is mostly dedicate to French and Italian operas. But she also sings a lot of sacred music. She has given several concerts all around the world: Rome Caracalla\u2019s Termes; Trondheim Festival (Norway); Palau de les Arts of Valencia (Spain); Auditorium A. Kraus of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; the Geneva Chamber Orchestra; Smetana Hall of Prague; International Festival of Harare Zimbabwe (Africa); the National Concert hall of Dublin; \u201cLa Philarmonie\u201d of Luxembourg; the Bozar in Brussels; Durban (South Africa) and with the Malaysian Philharmonic orchestra of Kuala Lumpur, Korea national opera\u2026 She also appears as a special guest singer in a recital in Puerto Rico (DVD).  DVD"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Marchino", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Marchino (born July 27, 1981) is a Colombian and a former United States rugby union player. She was born in Colombia, her mother's native country, and grew up in Switzerland, where her father was born. She moved to the United States in 1998, attending high school for two years before entering Siena College in New York. She first played rugby in 2005, joining the Washington D.C. Furies club. After moving to California, she played with the Berkley All Blues club. Marchino represented the U.S. women's rugby union team at the 2010 and 2014 Women's Rugby World Cup. She also represented the U.S. women's rugby sevens team at the 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens.  She initially was going to play for the United States at the 2016 Summer Olympics but because of the different eligibility rules between World Rugby and the International Olympic Committee she was not able to because she did not have U.S. citizenship. She was named in Colombia's women's sevens team for the 2016 Summer Olympics. As of 2016, Marchino was a sales account manager for Twitter."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Marie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Marie (born 21 June 1976 in Saint-L\u00f4) is a French sprint canoer who competed in the mid-2000s. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, she was eliminated in the semifinals of the K-1 500 m event."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Marie-Nely", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Marie-Nely (born 1986 at Lamentin) is a French athlete, who specializes in the triple jump. Nathalie was Junior Champion of France in the triple jump in 2004 and 2005 and Under 21s champion of France in 2006. She won the elite Triple Jump National titles in 2011 and 2014. She also won two National titles Indoors, in 2012 and 2013. Her personal record, set on 5 June 2012 at Montreuil-sous-Bois, is 14.03 m."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Marquay", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Marquay (born 17 March 1967 in Comines, Nord) was Miss France in 1987 and her country's representative at Miss Universe 1987 and Miss World 1987."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Martin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Martin is the Frederick M. Hart Chair in Consumer and Clinical Law at the University of New Mexico School of Law. She is a member of the American Law Institute and the American College of Bankruptcy as well as a former resident scholar at the American Bankruptcy Institute and a former Dean of faculty of the American Board of Certification, which writes the tests used to certify bankruptcy attorneys. She is also a regular contributor to Credit Slips, a blog on debtor creditor issues. Her research focuses on payday, title, and installment loan products with triple digit interest rates. She also does empirical research in consumer attitudes toward credit, and consumer knowledge of various credit products, and in the credit habits of undocumented persons. Her projects include several empirical studies funded by the National Conference of Bankruptcy Judges, including one that funded curbside interviews of payday loan customers.  She runs the Financial Literacy Program at, UNM School of Law, promoting financial literacy in New Mexico high schools, and teaches a two-day Financial Literacy Course for law students and undergraduates."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Me\u0301nigon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie M\u00e9nigon (born 28 February 1957 in Enghien-les-Bains, Val-d'Oise), was convicted for acts of terrorism committed while she was a member of the French revolutionary group Action directe. She was sentenced to life in prison in 1989 and freed in August 2008 after serving more than 20 years in prison. Born into a working-class family, she founded Action directe in 1978 with Jean-Marc Rouillan. She was arrested in September 1980 after a gunfight with police. She was freed in 1981 by a presidential amnesty issued by Fran\u00e7ois Mitterrand but remained charged with attempted murder of police officers. After she was released, she secretly re-joined with other members of Action directe."}, {"context": " She was arrested, with her companions Jean-Marc Rouillan, Jo\u00eblle Aubron and Georges Cipriani, on 18 February 1987 on a farm in Vitry-aux-Loges. She was convicted in 1989 for the 1986 assassination of Georges Besse, then-President of Renault, and of the 1985 assassination of Ren\u00e9 Audran, a senior official at the French French Ministry of Defence. She was sentenced to life in prison. She married Jean-Marc Rouillan on 29 June 1999 at the Fleury-M\u00e9rogis Prison. She was imprisoned in the Bapaume Prison, located in Pas-de-Calais, until August 2007. She was three times denied a suspended sentence for medical reasons, after suffering from hemiplegia, depression, problems balancing, and spasms. In May 2007 she was transferred to a house arrest program. The conditions allowed her to work during the days, but she had to spend her nights in prison. This parole was required in order for her to eventually be conditionally released from prison. Her conditional release was effective 2 August 2008.  While in prison she suffered from hemiplegia, caused by two strokes. She also engaged in self-harm in 2003, in protest of the jail conditions. Nathalie M\u00e9nigon had contacts with Pierre Carette, the founder of the Belgian group Communist Combatant Cells. In July 2008, she expressed interest in New Anticapitalist Party, started by Olivier Besancenot and the Revolutionary Communist League."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Moellhausen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Moellhausen (born 1 December 1985) is an Italo-Brazilian \u00e9p\u00e9e fencer, team World champion in 2009 and team European champion in 2007 for Italy. She now represents Brazil. Moellhausen was born in Milan from an Italian-German father and an Italo-Brazilian mother, stylist Valeria Ferlini\u2013she holds dual citizenship. She began fencing at the age of five at her school, then at CS Mangiarotti, where she trained under Nicola Pomarnasky, then Sandro Resegotti. She won in 2004 a bronze medal at the Junior World Championships in Plovdiv."}, {"context": " At the age of 18 she joined C.S. Aeronautica Militare, the sport section of the Italian Air Force, and moved to Paris to be coached by Daniel Levavasseur, who was training Laura Flessel at the time. The 2008\u201309 season saw her climb her first World Cup podium with a bronze medal in the Doha Grand Prix. It was followed by bronzes in Tauberbischofsheim and Budapest, silver in the Montreal World Cup and gold in the Lobnya World Cup. In the 2009 World Championships in Antalya she was stopped in the round of 32, but in the team event she conquered Italy's first gold in women's \u00e9p\u00e9e along with Bianca Del Carretto, Francesca Quondamcarlo and Cristiana Cascioli. Moellhausen finished the season No.8 in world rankings, her personal best as of 2014."}, {"context": " In the 2009\u201310 season Moellhausen won a silver medal in the Rome Grand Prix. In the World Championships at Paris, she made her way to the semifinals where she was defeated by Emese Sz\u00e1sz of Hungary and came away with the bronze medal. In the team event Italy were overcome by Estonia in the table of 16 and could not defend their title. Moellhausen's pre-Olympic season was plagued by a string of injuries. She however won the bronze medal in the 2011 European Championships in Sheffield after being defeated in the semifinal by Switzerland's Tiffany G\u00e9roudet. In the World Championships in Catania, she fell in the table of 32 to South Korea's Jung Hyo-jung. In the team event, Italy reached the semi-finals where they were defeated by China. They met Germany in the small final and prevailed 45\u201333 to win the bronze medal."}, {"context": " Moellhausen was selected for the 2012 Summer Olympics only as a reserve for the team. Italy was defeated in the quarter-finals by the United States and earned no medal. After the Games Moellhausen took a break in her sport career and assumed the artistic direction of the 2013 centenary gala of the International Fencing Federation at the Grand Palais in Paris. She announced in early 2014 her decision to come back to competition, this time under the Brazilian flag. She explained that fencing for Brazil, which has no other female \u00e9p\u00e9e fencer in the Top 100, allows her to aim for a qualification to the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro while pursuing a professional career. She went back training under Levavasseur and Laura Flessel. She was eliminated in the first round in her two first competitions since the 2012 Olympics, the Barcelona Grand Prix and the Rio World Cup, but she reached the quarter-finals in the Pan American Championships. In the 2014 World Championships in Kazan she was knocked out in the first round by Italy's Rossella Fiamingo, who would eventually win the gold medal."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Morin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Morin is a Canadian citizen, born in Quebec, who has been held against her will in Saudi Arabia by her partner, Saeed Al Shahrani, and the Saudi Arabian government since 2005. She claims that she is physically and psychologically mistreated with her four children. She has stated that she \"does not have any friend[s]\" in Saudi Arabia and is shunned because of her foreign roots. She has become famous in Quebec. Journalists follow her misfortunes regularly. In 2012, the Canadian and Saudi Arabian governments came reportedly close to a deal, but a solution did not materialise. A Saudi Arabian writer and political activist, Wajeha al-Huwaider, also tried to help her, but without any success so far."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Nattier", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Nattier (1925\u20132010) was a French film actress."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Nordnes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Nordnes (born 22 November 1984, in Bergen) is a Norwegian singer. She released her first album on Virgin Records in 2003, and her fourth album in November 2011. Most of her recorded output is sung in English. Her debut album \"Hush Hush\" with guitarist Mads Berven was released in 2003, which included a duet (\"Good Times\") with Sondre Lerche, whom she had dated. A video was produced for \"Only Because.\" The album spent 19 weeks on the Norwegian charts, rising to number 8, and achieved gold status."}, {"context": " \"Hush Hush\" was followed by \"Join Me In The Park\" in 2005, which included the single \"Cars and Boys\". It spent two weeks on the Norwegian charts, reaching number 16. These first two albums were produced by Hans Petter Gundersen and Kato \u00c5dland. Gunderson first started working with Nordnes when she was 14, and introduced her to Eirik Johansen at EMI, the parent owner of Virgin Records, which led to her record contract. Nordnes subsequently parted ways with her record label and released \"Letters\" in 2009 on her own label, Oliver Records. The album was recorded in Italy and produced by Rob Ellis.  Nordnes' fourth album \"N.N.\" was released in November 2011. Prior to the album release, the single \"America\" was released, with a video filmed in Bergen and New York City that debuted in early October 2011."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Nordquist", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Nordquist is a Swedish ballerina, who has performed major roles in many renowned ballet companies, including the Royal Swedish Ballet, the Royal Danish Ballet, Les Ballets de Monte Carlo, and The Australian Ballet. Nathalie Nordquist was born in Stockholm, to an American mother and Swedish father. She began dancing when she was just four years old, and enrolled in the Royal Swedish Ballet School at age ten. After training at the school for nine years, Nordquist was invited to join the Royal Swedish Ballet in 1998, She was promoted to soloist in 2001, and principal dancer in 2005. In 1999, after winning first place in Sweden's division, Nordquist went on to place second in the Eurovision Contest for Young Dancers European finals, winning a silver medal."}, {"context": " From 2007 until 2010, Nordquist joined Les Ballets de Monte Carlo, and toured at least twenty countries, including the U.S., Canada, Japan, Korea, China, and most of Europe. She resumed her association with the Royal Swedish Ballet in 2010, and in 2011 she danced the pas de deux from \"Le Spectre de la Rose\" at the International Ballet Gala in Dortmund. Reviewers called it \"a highlight of the evening.\" Notable roles include Clara in \"The Nutcracker\", Aurora in \"Sleeping Beauty\", the title role in \"Manon\", the title role in \"Cinderella\", Hermia in \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", Gamzatti in \"La Bayad\u00e8re\", Lise in \"La fille mal gard\u00e9e\", and Swanhilde in \"Copp\u00e9lia\"."}, {"context": " Nordquist's most famous role was Odette/Odile in the Royal Ballet's 2001 production of \"Swan Lake\", with choreography by Sir Peter Wright. A live performance was recorded on DVD (in collaboration with the BBC), and sold worldwide. The newspaper \"Svenska Dagbladet\" wrote of her performance: \"She embodies the romantic ideal woman, vulnerable and with melancholic pleading arms... That she masters an entirely different aspect as well, is seen in her convincing portrayal of Odile...she dances a modern 'femme fatale' unbeatable!\""}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Normandeau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Normandeau (born May 8, 1968 in Maria, Quebec) is a Quebec politician. She was MNA for the riding of Bonaventure in the Gasp\u00e9sie region between 1998 and 2011. She was also Deputy Premier and a member of the Quebec Liberal Party. Normandeau attended the Universit\u00e9 Laval in the early 1990s and obtained a bachelor's degree in political science and a certificate in African studies. While at university, she worked in the Quebec Premier's Office as a public relations officer and a secretary. She was elected mayor of the small Gasp\u00e9sie town of Maria where she grew up, and held office from 1992 to 1995. She actively participated as a member of several local groups in the region."}, {"context": " Normandeau entered provincial politics in 1998 and was elected as the MNA for Bonaventure. She became the opposition critic for natural resources, fisheries and regions. In 2003, when Jean Charest's Liberals defeated the Parti Qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois, Normandeau was re-elected for a second term and was named the Minister for regional development and tourism as well as the Minister responsible for the Gasp\u00e9sie-\u00celes-de-la-Madeleine region. Following a cabinet shuffle in 2005, she was promoted to the position of Municipal Affairs replacing Jean-Marc Fournier who became the Education Minister."}, {"context": " She was re-elected in 2007 to become the new Deputy Premier and one of the prominent forces of the new minority government . She retained her position as Minister of Municipal Affairs and Regions and Minister for her region. On April 23, 2009, Normandeau admitted to dating Fran\u00e7ois Bonnardel, a member of the opposition Action d\u00e9mocratique du Qu\u00e9bec (ADQ) caucus. Normandeau said Premier Charest was aware of the relationship and had no problem with it. During a cabinet shuffle, Normandeau was named the Minister of Natural Resources and Wildlife succeeding Claude B\u00e9chard who was named the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Laurent Lessard inherited the municipal affairs portfolio."}, {"context": " On September 6, 2011, she announced her resignation as minister and member of the National Assembly, citing personal reasons. She has been romantically involved with former Montreal Police Chief Yvan Delorme. In April 2012, Normandeau was the subject of a Radio-Canada report over alleged ties to a construction industry executive while a cabinet minister. In April 2014, UPAC investigation involves Normandeau in Liberal Party obscure financing In March 2016, she is arrested by the UPAC, Quebec's anti-corruption unit, over illegal campaign financing. She was charged on six counts, including corruption, of a member of the legislature, fraud and bribery.  On March 17, 2016, she was arrested by UPAC."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Obadia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " With spaces in Paris and Brussels., Galerie Nathalie Obadia is a contemporary art gallery of international stature. Nathalie Obadia is born in 1962 in Toulouse. She had wanted to run a gallery since she was a child. Her parents were early collectors of artists from Narrative Figuration and Pop Art. They passed on their passion for contemporary art to their daughter by bringing her to museums and galleries. When a teenager, Nathalie Obadia took advantage of her first internship opportunities to learn about gallery management at Daniel Varenne, in Genova, and Adrien Maeght, in Paris. After a master in law and graduating from the Paris Institute of Political Studies, she worked at the Galerie Daniel Templon from 1988 to 1992."}, {"context": " In 1993 Nathalie Obadia opened her first gallery in the Marais in Paris. In this 40 square-metre space she showed work by the new generation of French artists, including Carole Benzaken (Prix Marcel Duchamp, 2004), Val\u00e9rie Favre and Pascal Pinaud, who were later joined by numerous international artists, notably the American Jessica Stockholder, the German Albert Oehlen, the British Fiona Rae and the Filipino Manuel Ocampo. In 1995 she moved into a much larger space close to the Centre Pompidou where she resolutely backed her artistic choices and intuitions on the world art market, exhibiting artists like Frank Nitsche and Lorna Simpson, whose first French exhibitions she mounted, or supporting confirmed figures like Jean-Marc Bustamante, Wim Delvoye and Shirley Jaffe."}, {"context": " In 2003 the gallery moved to its current address at 3 Rue du Clo\u00eetre Saint-Merri, a space of 500 square metres well suited to showcasing the work of new artists like Joana Vasconcelos, Huma Bhabha, Guillaume Bresson, Michael DeLucia, Jorge Queiroz, Luc Delahaye (Prix Pictet, 2012), Chloe Piene, Patrick Faigenbaum and Rina Banerjee. In addition to this forward-looking work, the gallery, now a reference on the contemporary art circuit, revisited the historic contribution of abstract minimalist Martin Barr\u00e9 (d. 1993). In 2010 two major figures joined the gallery: filmmaker Agn\u00e8s Varda and artist Sarkis, who thus benefited from new modes of exhibition and international visibility. In 2008 the Galerie Nathalie Obadia was one of the first to open premises in Brussels, Belgium."}, {"context": " Nathalie Obadia continued the development of her gallery with the opening of a new space in Paris, in Rue du Bourg Tibourg in 2013, twenty years after the creation of her original space in 1993. This addition provides artists and collectors with a new range of possibilities for exhibition and cements her position at the forefront of the contemporary art scene. The gallery list was further extended with new artists Xu Zhen, Fabrice Hyber (Lion d\u2019Or at the Venice Biennale in 1997), Val\u00e9rie Belin (Prix Pictet 2015), Joris van de Moortel, Mickalene Thomas, Andres Serrano, Edgar Arceneaux and Laure Prouvost (Turner Prize, 2013). Since 2013 the gallery has also represented Eug\u00e8ne Leroy, who died in 2000."}, {"context": " Artists from the gallery appear regularly in the programmes of prestigious cultural venues. Notably, Manuel Ocampo, who represented the Pavilion of the Philippines at the 2015 Venice Biennale, Sarkis who represented Turkey at the same event, and Joana Vasconcelos, who was shown in the Portuguese Pavilion, the same year that Val\u00e9rie Belin was given a solo show at the Centre Pompidou. Andres Serrano was shown at the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium (Brussels), and Lorna Simpson at the Jeu de Paume. In 2018 the Centre Pompidou will mount a large solo exhibition dedicated to the work of Martin Barr\u00e9."}, {"context": " Nathalie Obadia was the Vice-presidente of the \"Comit\u00e9 des galeries d\u2019art\" from 2005 to 2008. Since 2015, Nathalie Obadia gives a class of \"Analysis of the Contemporary Art Market\" at the Paris Institute of Political Studies (Science po, Paris). Galerie Nathalie Obadia exhibits regularly at leading art fairs, notably the three Art Basel events (Basel, Miami, Hong Kong), FIAC (Paris), The Armory Show (New York City), Art Dubai (Dubai), Artgen\u00e8ve (Geneva), Frieze (New York City), Art Brussels (Brussels), and Paris Photo (Paris)."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Pallet", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Pallet (born 25 May 1964) is a French fencer. She competed in the women's team foil event at the 1988 Summer Olympics."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Paulding", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Nicole Paulding is an actress; she has performed in American theatre, film, and television. Living in Hollywood, Florida, in 1994, Paulding was enrolled in the Little Flower Montessori School in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, at age 9. Paulding has made several appearances in film, television and theatre since the early 1990s."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Pa\u0302que", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie P\u00e2que (born 11 May 1977, Li\u00e8ge) is a Belgian singer, best known for her participation on behalf of France in the 1989 Eurovision Song Contest. P\u00e2que was internally selected by channel Antenne 2 to represent France with the song \"J'ai vol\u00e9 la vie\" (\"I've Stolen Life\") in the 1989 Eurovision Song Contest, held in Lausanne, Switzerland on 6 May. At five days short of her 12th birthday, P\u00e2que was the youngest performer ever to take a lead vocal at Eurovision. \"J'ai vol\u00e9 la vie\" finished in eighth place of the 22 entrants. In response to reservations expressed by a number of participating countries regarding P\u00e2que's youth (and that of 1989 Israeli singer Gili, who was only slightly older), the European Broadcasting Union amended the Eurovision rules on age with effect from 1990.  P\u00e2que released several singles and two albums in Belgium during the 1990s, and in recent years has appeared in stage musicals such as \"Titanic\" and \"Singin' in the Rain\" in Belgium and France. Singles Albums"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Perrey", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Perrey or Natalie Perrey (28 February 1929 \u2013 25 March 2012) was a French actress. She is best known for her many years working with director Jean Rollin, appearing in several of his films. She has consistently worked as a film editor and script supervisor among other things throughout her long career. Nathalie Perrey has worked more that forty years in the French film industry, most notably as an actress of French cinema. She is seen in many small or supporting roles, and is most memorably known for working with director Jean Rollin in several productions over a thirty-year period. Making her film debut in 1969, Perrey was cast in Jean Rollin's \"La vampire nue\", his second feature film. Subsequently, she received minor roles in several of his other films including \"La rose de fer\", \"L\u00e8vres de sang\", \"\"La nuit des traqu\u00e9es\", \"Les paum\u00e9es du petit matin\", \"Perdues dans New York\", \"Les deux orphelines vampires\", \"La fianc\u00e9e de Dracula\" and \"La nuit des horloges\"."}, {"context": " Not only as an actress, Perrey has worked with Rollin on other occasions. In 1970, she was a production assistant for Rollin's third feature, \"Le frisson des vampires\", a screenplay writer for \"Tout le monde il en a deux\", an assistant director for \"Fascination\" and \"Les paum\u00e9es du petit matin\", for which she also worked in continuity, as editor on \"Les deux orphelines vampires\" and \"La fianc\u00e9e de Dracula\" for which she served continuity, costume designer and script supervisor. Perrey has also received script work in \"Requiem for a vampire\" and \"La rose de fer\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Persson", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Persson (born 18 April 1997) is a Swedish footballer midfielder who plays for Kopparbergs/G\u00f6teborg FC. Winner Runner-up Winner"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Pe\u0301chalat", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie P\u00e9chalat (born 22 December 1983) is a retired French ice dancer. With partner Fabian Bourzat, she is a two-time World bronze medalist (2012, 2014), a two-time European champion (2011\u20132012), and a five-time French national champion (2009, 2011-2014). They have won five medals at the Grand Prix Final (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013) and thirteen other Grand Prix medals, including three golds at Cup of China and two at Troph\u00e9e Eric Bompard. Nathalie P\u00e9chalat was born 22 December 1983 in Rouen, France. She has an older brother and two sisters. She obtained a BSc degree in sports management and later pursued graduate studies at Management School of Lyon. While training in Moscow, she studied at the Finance University under the Government of the Russian Federation, a prestigious Russian university for economics and finance. She intends to pursue a career in business after her competitive retirement, with a preference for a company involved in sports."}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat is married to French actor, Jean Dujardin. Their relationship began in 2014. The couple's daughter, Jeanne, was born on 5 December 2015. They married in May 19, 2018 in a small ceremony. Nathalie P\u00e9chalat began skating at the age of seven, originally as a singles skater. At the age of ten, she switched to ice dancing after her coach, Anne Sophie Druet, suggested she was suited for the discipline and her son was looking for a partner. P\u00e9chalat competed with Julien Deheinzelin on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series in autumn 1997 and 1998. She broke her arm in 1998 and missed six weeks of skating during her three-month recovery. She competed with Michael Zenezini in the 1999\u20132000 season. He ended their partnership."}, {"context": " In March 2000, Muriel Zazoui suggested P\u00e9chalat team up with Fabian Bourzat. The two did not get along well at first but became friends over time. In a 2011 interview, P\u00e9chalat said they had different personalities but that he was the ideal skating partner for her: \"He is very gifted. He works through feeling and inspiration. As soon as he feels a move, he can reproduce it and interpret it. He does not need to intellectualize.\" According to Bourzat, \"Nathalie is always pulling the couple ahead and pushing us to work. She brings her extraordinary capacity to work. She always wants to do everything perfectly.\""}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat were coached by Muriel Boucher-Zazoui and Romain Haguenauer from 2000 to mid-2008 in Lyon, France. From 2000 to 2003, they also worked with Pasquale Camerlengo. They skated as juniors for two years, winning two Junior Grand Prix medals, before moving to seniors at the beginning of the 2002\u201303 season. P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won bronze medals at the 2003 and 2005 Winter Universiade. They made their Worlds debut in 2004, finishing 20th, and their Europeans debut in 2005, placing 12th. The duo competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics, where they came in 18th."}, {"context": " In the 2006\u201307 season, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won their first senior Grand Prix medal, a bronze at the 2006 Skate America. P\u00e9chalat lost around eight weeks of training in the winter due to a broken hand. The two missed the 2007 European Championships but were able to compete at the 2007 World Championships, where they finished in 12th place. In the 2007\u201308 season, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won silver at both Skate America and the Cup of Russia, and qualified for their first Grand Prix Final, where they finished 6th. They were forced to miss the 2008 French National Championships after Bourzat underwent knee surgery for a torn meniscus, but returned to the ice in time for the 2008 Europeans, finishing 5th. They were 7th at the 2008 Worlds."}, {"context": " In July 2008, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat moved to Moscow to train under Alexander Zhulin, with whom they had spent a few weeks in 2007, and his assistant Oleg Volkov. They said the move was difficult at first due to not knowing the Russian language and Moscow being a very expensive city to live in, however, from a skating perspective they felt it was a good move. P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat's 2008\u20132009 Grand Prix events were Skate Canada and the NHK Trophy. They made some changes to their programs following their 3rd-place finish at Skate Canada, and finished a close second at the NHK Trophy, winning both the original dance and the free dance. They did not qualify for the 2008\u20132009 Grand Prix Final. In December 2008, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won their first national title. At the 2009 Europeans, they were second in the free dance and fourth overall, missing out on a medal by less than half a point. They finished 5th at 2009 Worlds."}, {"context": " For the 2009\u201310 season, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat were assigned to the Troph\u00e9e Eric Bompard and Skate Canada as their Grand Prix events. They finished in second place, behind Canadians Tessa Virtue / Scott Moir, in both events. These results qualified them for their second Grand Prix Final. Prior to the final, Bourzat suffered an ankle injury, but they were able to skate well enough to earn their first GPF medal, a bronze. Following a second consecutive 4th-place finish at Europeans and a 7th place at the Vancouver Olympics, Pechalat/Bourzat elected to return to their Circus free dance from the 2008\u20139 season. They then finished 4th at 2010 Worlds with new personal best scores in the compulsory dance, the free dance, and overall. They won the small bronze medal for the free dance."}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat began the 2010\u201311 season with wins at the Nebelhorn Trophy and the Finlandia Trophy; the former was their first international gold medal at any level. They initially used Am\u00e9lie for their short dance but replaced it with Doctor Zhivago prior to the 2010 Cup of China, which they won by a large margin. They won their second Grand Prix title at the 2010 Troph\u00e9e Eric Bompard. Their results qualified them for the Grand Prix Final, where they won the silver medal. They followed this by winning French nationals for the second time in their career. P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat went on to win the 2011 Europeans, finishing first in both the short dance and the free dance, and breaking the 100-point barrier in the free dance for the first time in their career. It was their first ever medal at an ISU Championship. They produced France's fifth ice dancing European title."}, {"context": " In mid-February 2011, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat performed in galas in North Korea along with other international skaters. Bourzat said, \"Traveling there was not a political act at all. We came as open-minded people, who wanted to discover and exchange.\" At the 2011 Worlds, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat set a new personal best in the short dance and were in bronze medal position going into the free dance. They dropped to fourth overall after Bourzat tripped and both fell during a step sequence. Following the event, reports surfaced that P\u00e9chalat / Bourzat would move to Michigan to train with Anjelika Krylova and Pasquale Camerlengo."}, {"context": " In May 2011, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat confirmed their move to the Detroit Skating Club in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan for the 2011\u20132012 season. They said that Camerlengo was the only coach they considered, based on their past experience of working with him during their time as juniors at Lyon, as well as wanting to continue the technique they learned under Zhulin: \"[Krylova] is exactly in Zhulin's footsteps as she perpetuates the basics and technique he taught us.\" The French dancers remained on good terms with Zhulin and Volkov. In Michigan, they trained three hours a day on the ice and then did off-ice training. They lived close to the rink. They also spent time during the summer in Lyon to work with choreographer Kader Belmoktar on their Egypt-themed free dance."}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat took up the new option of competing at three Grand Prix events and were assigned to 2011 Skate America, 2011 Skate Canada, and 2011 Trophee Eric Bompard. Although Bourzat was ill with bronchitis, they were able to win the silver medal at Skate America. They withdrew from Skate Canada due to Bourzat's bronchitis. Their second-place finish at the Trophee Eric Bompard, combined with their showing at Skate America, qualified them for their third straight Grand Prix Final. There, they set a new personal best score in the free dance and won the bronze medal. Their next competition was the French Championships, where they won their third national title."}, {"context": " At the 2012 European Championships, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat were second after the short dance, but rallied in the free dance to win their second consecutive European title. P\u00e9chalat sustained a broken nose in training on 13 March. She said: \"We just made a mistake during our twizzles, and I got knocked out.\" She began wearing a mask but decided to delay an operation until after the 2012 World Championships. On 25 March, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat confirmed they would compete at the event and said surgery would not be necessary. At the World Championships, they recorded a season's best score in the short dance and a personal best score in the free dance on their way to winning the bronze, their first World medal."}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won gold at both of their events, the 2012 Cup of China and 2012 Trophee Eric Bompard, and qualified for their fourth Grand Prix Final, where they won bronze. On 9 January 2013, Bourzat sustained a partial tear of the adductor muscle of his right leg, resulting in the team's withdrawal from the 2013 European Championships. P\u00e9chalat remained captain of the French team for the event. The duo decided to compete at the 2013 World Championships, motivated in part by the desire to obtain two spots for French ice dancers at the 2014 Olympics. They finished 6th at the event."}, {"context": " On 20 May 2013, at the French skating federation's suggestion, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat announced a coaching change to Igor Shpilband in Novi, Michigan. P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat won gold at the 2013 Cup of China ahead of Bobrova/Soloviev. They were bronze medalists at the 2013 Troph\u00e9e Eric Bompard behind Virtue/Moir and Ilinykh/Katsalapov. At the Grand Prix Final in Fukuoka, Japan, the French won the bronze medal, their fifth medal at the event, and then ended 2013 with their fifth national title. They withdrew from the 2014 European Championships to focus on the Olympics."}, {"context": " P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat placed fourth at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. Although they initially planned to retire right after the Olympics, they ultimately decided to end their competitive career at the 2014 World Championships in Saitama, Japan. Ranked third in the short dance and second in the free dance, P\u00e9chalat/Bourzat ended the competition in third overall, 0.06 of a point behind Italy's Anna Cappellini / Luca Lanotte and 0.04 behind Canada's Kaitlyn Weaver / Andrew Poje. They came away with their second World bronze medal. They then retired from competition but said they would continue performing together in shows for one or two years."}, {"context": " In late 2014 she became a contestant on the fifth season of TF1's \"Danse avec les Stars\". Since her an Bourzat's retirement following the 2014 World Championships, P\u00e9chalat has been very active in the skating community. She has worked as a commentator and figure skating consultant for Eurosport France since 2014, commentating at Grand Prix, Championship, and Olympic events. At the 2018 Winter Olympics, P\u00e9chalat attended as a commentator and consultant. P\u00e9chalat partnered with French Olympic Team sponsor, L'Or Espresso, to produce videos interacting with Olympic athletes.  In July 2018, P\u00e9chalat hosted a training camp for young ice dancers and figure skaters. Ice dancer, Anna Cappellini, and pairs skater, Valentina Marchei, joined her as guest coaches as well as fitness and dance coach, Silvia Notargiacomo."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Pownall", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Pownall is a British actress. She grew up in Bristol and was a member of the Bristol Old Vic Youth Theatre before moving to London to train professionally. She has appeared as a guest lead in BBC series \"Casualty\", \"Doctors\" and ITV's \"Doc Martin\" with Martin Clunes. In 2008, she played Maia Sturn, the solo role in an online viral series 'Emergency Subnet' for Channel 4 to promote and launch the American Animated series \"Afterworld\" in the UK. She also played Timmy in British Horror Credo (The Devil's curse USA).  In 2006 she helped set up Tutuma, a charitable organization led by leading medical professionals and Actors, that ran theatre and dance workshops for orphans in Zimbabwe. The same year Tutuma was commissioned to perform Zimbabwe's first production of \"Closer\" by British Playwright Patrick Marber play at HIFA - Harare International Festival of the Arts. She also played Eve in the 2015 film \"Scrawl\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Poza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Poza Maupain (born March 7, 1972) is a Spanish actress. Her credits include \"Todas las mujeres\", \"Hispania, la leyenda\", \"Football Days\", \"Un lugar en el mundo\" and \"The Weakness of the Bolshevik\". She was born in Madrid, the daughter of a French mother and a Spanish father, and studied at a British bilingual school. From a young age, she learned to play the piano and practiced ballet. Her theater career has been closely linked with of the group , with which she has acted in various performances with actors such as , Javier Guti\u00e9rrez \u00c1lvarez, Guillermo Toledo, Alberto San Juan, and many others. Her ex-partner, Gonzalo de Castro, has also been linked to Animalario."}, {"context": " In television she has had many secondary roles since the mid 90's, including appearances in ', ', ', ', ', and ', the last of which she has appeared in several episodes. In her first fixed television role in 2001, she played Nerea in \"\". Later, she appeared in \"Hospital Central\", and, in more permanent roles, in \"\" (2003) and \"Maneras de sobrevivir\" (2005). Her first cinematographic works were the short films \"Abierto (El eco del tiempo)\" (1997), by Jaime Marques; \"No s\u00e9, no s\u00e9\" (1998), by Aitor Gaizka and \"Ruth est\u00e1 bien\" (1999), by Pablo Valiente."}, {"context": " In 2002, she filmed the television movie \"Entre cien fuegos\" under the orders of and that same year premiered \"The Other Side of the Bed\", by Emilio Mart\u00ednez-L\u00e1zaro, one of the most successful Spanish films in recent years. The next year, Maria Ripoll directed her in '. She also acted in \"Football Days\", by and \"The Weakness of the Bolshevik\", by Manuel Mart\u00edn Cuenca. She acted again in movies with both directors, filming ' with Cuenca in 2005, and \"\" with Serrano in 2007. She then filmed ' (2007), directed by ; ' (2007), by ; and the thriller \"Un buen hombre\" (2009), directed by . During those years, she acted in television, in series such as ' (2008), ' (2010-2012) and its spin-off ' (2012). In 2013, the film ' premiered, directed by Mariano Barroso, for which she received her third Goya nomination, for best supporting actress. In 2015 she joined the series \"Carlos, rey emperador\", where she plays Germaine of Foix.  !scope=\"row\" rowspan=\"2\"| !scope=\"row\" rowspan=\"2\"|\"Football Days\""}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Quagliotto", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Quagliotto is an artist born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1984. She received an Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from Concordia University in 2007, and a Master of Fine Arts degree from the University of Waterloo in 2009. She has exhibited sculpture in Canada particularly in Quebec and Ontario, the United States in New York City, and Australia in Melbourne. Quagliotto lives and works in Montreal, Canada and Kitchener, Ontario, Canada. The artist works within the field of sculpture and produces sculptural forms by taking pre-fabricated objects that identify with childhood and reconfiguring them by simply changing their proximity levels and their colour. This act of replacement produces new social situations in accordance with the object for adults. The artist is known to use the colour \"safety yellow\" in almost all her work, as discussed by \"The Globe and Mail\" art critic Gary Michael Dault because of its public significance of caution, that the colour has become synonymous with the artist and the artist's practice. The artist is also known to double objects and place them together to demonstrate a co-operation within human relationships.  In 2017, Qualiotto's \"Probably\" was auctioned at a Timeraiser150 charity event."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Quezada", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Alejandra Quezada Altamirano is a Chilean football striker, currently playing for Colo-Colo in the Chilean Championship. She played the 2011 Copa Libertadores's final. She is a member of the Chilean national team, taking part in the 2006 and 2010 South American Championships. As an Under-19 international she played the 2008 U-20 World Cup."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Richard", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Richard (born 6 January 1963) is a French actress. Richard was born in Paris, France. She received the Prix Michel Simon film prize for most promising actress/actor for her role in the 1988 Jacques Rivette film \"Gang of Four\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Richard (co-driver)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Richard is a Canadian rally co-driver. She is best known as the co-driver for Subaru Rally Team Canada alongside her brother Pat Richard in 2004 & 2005, and later as co-driver with Antoine L'Estage over 8 seasons (2006 - 2013). As of 2014 Richard had earned 43 overall national victories in Canada and the US. Nathalie is a three-time X Games Rally Car athlete and the most decorated co-driver in North America. Richard was born in Sherbrooke, Quebec, and a few months later, moved to Halifax, Nova Scotia. She speaks both English and French. After graduating with her Bachelor of Commerce from Dalhousie University she lived in Toronto, Ontario for three years before moving to Australia. There she received her Graduate Diploma in Education from Wollongong University prior to working in Sydney for several years. Nathalie is a financial planner in her hometown of Halifax."}, {"context": " In 2000 Richard was the manager of her brother Pat's Subaru Rally Team Canada. After filling in occasionally as co-driver, Nathalie became Pat's regular co-driver in 2004 and 2005. Together they won the Triple Crown in 2004 by winning the Canadian Rally Championship, the SCCA (American) Championship, and the North American Rally Cup in the same year. In 2005, the Richards won the Rally America series (formerly known as the SCCA series) and Nathalie also won the North American Rally Championship. In 2006, the Richard siblings competed in the inaugural Rally competition at the X Games."}, {"context": " In 2006, Richard started co-driving for Antoine L'Estage. Together, the duo won four Canadian national championship titles, six North American titles, and one American title. In 2007, and again in 2009, Richard competed in the X Games with Antoine L'Estage; following that, co-drivers were eliminated from X Games rally competition. In 2009 the pair began competing in a Hyundai Tiburon. In 2010, Richard and L'Estage won the Triple Crown. This was only the second time in history that the Triple Crown has been won. Nathalie won it both times (2004 & 2010). After this successful year, the pair were named as part of the 2010 All-America Auto Racing First Team, voted in by the American Auto Racing Writers and Broadcasters Association. Nathalie was the only female to be voted in. Other members of this 2010 team include Dario Franchitti, Kyle Busch, Will Power, and John Force."}, {"context": " In 2012, Richard and L'Estage were presented with the Gilles-Villeneuve Trophy by Auto Sport Qu\u00e9bec. In late 2013 they began driving a Subaru WRX STI before Nathalie reunited with her brother for his last two competitions. In 2014, Richard co-drove in another Subaru WRX STI with former Production World Rally driver Martin Rowe (Isle of Man) as Subaru Rally Team Canada. The car had been prepared by Pat Richard and his Rocket Rally Racing company. In 2015 and 2016 Nathalie co-drove for American Ramana Lagermann (in an M-Sport Ford Fiesta R5 and Porsche 911) and Czech George Plsek (Mitsubishi Evo).  Richard has hosted several motorsports television shows including the Canadian Rally Championship series on TSN and RDS (French - Reseau des sports), the Rally America series on ESPN, and the Pikes Peak International Hillclimb on The Outdoor Channel."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Rochefort", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Rochefort is a Canadian politician, who represented the electoral district of Mercier in the National Assembly of Quebec from 2001 to 2003. A member of the Quebec Liberal Party, she was elected in a by-election on April 9, 2001, following the resignation of Robert Perreault. She was defeated by Daniel Turp of the Parti Qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois in the 2003 election. She ran again in the 2007 election, but was not re-elected. Rochefort is also a long-time member of the federal New Democratic Party (the Quebec Liberal Party is not affiliated with the Liberal Party of Canada). She endorsed Brian Topp for the leader of the party in 2012."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Ronvaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Ronvaux (born 1977) is a Luxembourg poet and playwright who writes in French. For her poetry collection \"Vignes et louves\" (Vines and She-wolves) she received the Servais Encouragement Prize in 2011. In 2013 she won first prize in Luxembourg's National Literary Contest for her play \"La V\u00e9rit\u00e9 m'appartient\" (The Truth Belongs to Me) which was first performed in January 2016. Born on 13 June 1977 in Luxembourg City, Nathalie Ronvaux is the daughter of Belgian parents. After primary school in Bertrange, she attended the Lyc\u00e9e Michel Lucius in Luxembourg and the Institut Sainte-Marie in Arlon. She then spend a year studying forensic science in Lausanne before returning to Luxembourg to work for the Chambre des M\u00e9tiers (2000\u201308). She took up work in administrative and production management at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Casemates (2008\u201309) and as production manager for LuxAnimation (2011\u201312). After spending four years as an administrative coordinator for CEPA (Centre pour la Propagation de l\u2019Art), she decided to devote her time to creative writing."}, {"context": " In 2010, her play \"\u00c9chographie\" was staged at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre du Centaure, contributing to a series on \"Femmes et violence\". The same year she published her poetry collection \"Vignes et louves\", analysing relationships with other people. \"La libert\u00e9 meurt chaque jour au bout d\u2019une corde\" (2012) is a poetic introduction to an exhibition at the National Resistance Museum in Esch-sur-Alzette. In 2014, Ronvaux published a collection of theatrical works including the play \"La V\u00e9rit\u00e9 m\u2019appartient\" which presents a confrontation between two women who accuse each other of collaborating with the Nazis during the Second World War. After winning first prize at the National Literary Contest, the play was staged in 2016. In 2017, Nathalie Ronvaux was one of ten writers selected for \"New Voices from Europe\", presenting authors who deserved to be better known.  In addition to her literary awards, in 2015 Ronvaux was named \"Femme de l'ann\u00e9e\" (Woman of the Year) by the Luxembourg newspaper \"Le Jeudi\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Roussel", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Roussel (born 14 September 1956) is a French actress of stage, television and film. She is best known for her role in the 1991 films \"My Father's Glory\" and \"My Mother's Castle\". Roussel was married to David Toscan du Plantier, the son of the French film producer Daniel Toscan du Plantier and the French actress Marie-Christine Barrault. Their daughter Marie was born in 1995."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Roy", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Roy (born 8 May 1964) is a Canadian politician. She is a member of the National Assembly of Quebec for the riding of Montarville, first elected in the 2012 election. Prior to her election, Roy served as a journalist and news anchor with \"TVA Nouvelles.\""}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Rozencwajg", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Rozencwajg (born October 1975) is a RIBA and RICS award-winning architect based in Paris and London. Rozencwajg was born in Luxembourg, grew up in Brussels and studied at the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA) in London, graduating in 2001. After an early career spent working in London and Paris, and on projects in Beijing, Athens and Mecca, Rozencwajg went on to co-found RARE architecture with Michel da Costa Goncalves in 2005 , where she was a director for 12 years. From 2004 to 2016, Rozencwajg taught at the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA) in London as a Unit Master."}, {"context": " In 2012, Rozencwajg was commended by Architects\u2019 Journal for the AJ Emerging Woman Architect of the Year Award. In 2014, The Guardian newspaper noted Rozencwajg as one of \"10 women in architecture to watch\". In 2018, Rozencwajg founded a new architectural practice, NAME architecture. Rozencwajg lectures and leads architectural events internationally, including for the Architectural Association School of Architecture, Kansas State University, the glasstec International Trade Fair and the Fall Semester in Miami, for which she also produced an essay, Nathalie Rozencwajg: The Imagined and the Imaginary. She was also a contributor to the book Scale: imagination, perception, and practice in architecture (Routledge, ISBN: 9780415687119) and to the journal A+u 536 15:05 London - Renewing Architecture & Cityscape (A+U Publishing, ISBN: 4910019730552). In addition, Rozencwajg has contributed to the debate about the issues facing women in architecture, saying that \u201cit\u2019s a pity to see so much talent that just doesn't fulfil itself\u201d, and that long hours and the cost of childcare can be a factor."}, {"context": " Rozencwajg\u2019s architectural practice won the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Grand Final Building Conservation Award and the Project of the Year in 2011 for Bethnal Green Town Hall Hotel, a 98-room luxury hotel in Hackney London. The Town Hall \u2013 originally built in 1910 and extended in 1937 \u2013 is a Grade II listed building, and now has a laser-cut aluminium \u2018skin\u2019 added to its existing structure, which conceals a new floor. Several sculptures by Henry Poole were retained in the development, which also included a bar and restaurant area called Viajante for former elBulli chef Nuno Mendes. The building also won a RIBA Award. The Times said: \u201cThe makeover is in a modern manner but done with respect for the old work, which is either conserved intact or set off by startling interventions.\u201dSleeper Magazine said: \u201cThe Town Hall Hotel & Apartments combines a visionary extension and sensitive restoration of the building, which has stood in the heart of London\u2019s East End since Edwardian times.\u201d"}, {"context": " Rozencwajg is also responsible for the CentralFestival EastVille shopping mall and fashion arcade in Bangkok, Porte 12 restaurant in Paris \u2013 owned by Andr\u00e9 Chiang and run by Vincent Crepel , and Londrino restaurant for chef Leandro Carreira. Londrino has been shortlisted for the Restaurant & Bar Design Awards . Wallpaper* magazine said Rozencwajg \u201ccreated a simple, slick space that carefully considers the refined craftsmanship of Londrino\u2019s food.\u201d Rozencwajg is also known for the design of high-end apartments in Westminster\u2019s Castle Lane \u2013 in the Birdcage Conservation Area \u2013 and the innovative reinterpretation of the classic bow window. Architectures CREE magazine said: \u201cInnovation exists in tradition. Cultural heritage is strongly present in this bow window concept. The double bend forms a thick fa\u00e7ade to create a revisited form of the bow window.\u201d"}, {"context": " Rozencwajg taught at the Architectural Association School of Architecture (AA) from 2004 until 2016. This includes a first year unit (2004-2007) and intermediate unit 4 (2007-2016). She was Head of AA Singapore Visiting School from 2006 to 2016. As part of a workshop for the AA, Rozencwajg and Valentin Bontjes van Beek led a student project, \"The Crossings Project\", to build an experimental footbridge at Hooke Park a 142-hectare woodland in Dorset, South West England. It was funded by the Custerson Award.  Commended, AJ Emerging Woman Architect of the Year Award, Architects\u2019 Journal RIBA Award, Town Hall Hotel RICS London Award for Building Conservation, Town Hall Hotel RICS Project of the Year Award, Town Hall Hotel Shortlisted, Dezeen Awards, Housing category for VI Castle Lane Shortlisted, The Brit List 2018"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Saba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Saba (; born 1998 in Cairo, Egypt) is an Egyptian singer. Her debut song, \"Snow\", was written and recorded in Sweden. Saba describes the song as \"about not taking things at face value, when you reach a certain place in your life where you realize that not everything that\u2019s beautiful on the outside is beautiful on the inside.\" Tyhhjjijoojhtewett6h7uujik9o9khyhhyfffrrrder"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Santamaria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Santamaria (born 1973 in Ajaccio, Corse-du-Sud) is a French singer. She represented France in the Eurovision Song Contest 1995, performing twelfth on the night, before Hungary, and after Croatia, with the song \"Il me donne rendez-vous\", and placed fourth of twenty-three, with ninety-one points."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Santer-Bj\u00f8rndalen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Santer-Bj\u00f8rndalen (born 28 March 1972) is a biathlete and cross-country skier. She has dual Italian and Belgian citizenship. From 2006 to 2012 she was married to fellow biathlete Ole Einar Bj\u00f8rndalen."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sarles", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Sarles (born 17 April 1962) is a French politician representing the Democratic Movement. She was elected to the French National Assembly on 18 June 2017, representing the department of Loire. Sarles was previously a nurse and trader before becoming a councilor for Villerest commune."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sarraute", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Sarraute (; July 18, 1900 \u2013 October 19, 1999) was a French lawyer and writer. Sarraute was born Natalia Ilinichna Tcherniak (Russian \u041d\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0301\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0418\u043b\u044c\u0438\u0301\u043d\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0430 \u0427\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044f\u0301\u043a, Natalya Chernyak) in Ivanovo (then known as Ivanovo-Voznesensk), 300\u00a0km north-east of Moscow in 1900 (although she frequently referred to the year of her birth as 1902, a date still cited in some reference works). She was the daughter of Pauline (n\u00e9e Chatounovsky), a writer, and Ilya Tcherniak, a chemist. She was of Russian Jewish origin. Following the divorce of her parents, she spent her childhood shuttled between France and Russia. In 1909 she moved to Paris with her father. Sarraute studied law and literature at the prestigious Sorbonne, having a particular fondness for contemporary literature and the works of Marcel Proust and Virginia Woolf, who greatly affected her conception of the novel, then later studied history at Oxford and sociology in Berlin, before passing the French bar exam (1926\u20131941) and becoming a lawyer."}, {"context": " In 1925, she married Raymond Sarraute, a fellow lawyer, with whom she would have three daughters. In 1932 she wrote her first book, \"Tropismes,\" a series of brief sketches and memories that set the tone for her entire \"oeuvre\". The novel was first published in 1939, although the impact of World War II stunted its popularity. In 1941, Sarraute, who was Jewish, was barred from working as a lawyer as a result of the Vichy regime's anti-Jewish laws. During this time, she went into hiding and made arrangements to divorce her husband in an effort to protect him (although they would eventually stay together)."}, {"context": " Sarraute died at the age of 99 in Paris, France. Her daughter, the journalist Claude Sarraute, was married to French Academician Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Revel. Sarraute dedicated herself to literature, with her most prominent work being \"Portrait of a Man Unknown\" (1948), a work applauded by Jean-Paul Sartre, who famously referred to it as an \"anti-novel\" and who also contributed a foreword. Despite such high critical praise, however, the work only drew notice from literary insiders, as did her follow-up, \"Martereau\"."}, {"context": " Sarraute's essay \"The Age of Suspicion\" (\"L'\u00c8re du soup\u00e7on\", 1956) served as a prime manifesto for the nouveau roman literary movement, alongside Alain Robbe-Grillet's \"For a New Novel\". Sarraute became, along with Robbe-Grillet, Claude Simon, Marguerite Duras, and Michel Butor, one of the figures most associated with the rise of this new trend in writing, which sought to radically transform traditional narrative models of character and plot. Sarraute was awarded the \"Prix international de litt\u00e9rature\" for her novel \"The Golden Fruits\" in 1963, which led to greater popularity and exposure for the author. That same year, Sarraute also began working as a dramatist, authoring a total of seven plays, including \"Le Silence\" (1963), \"Le Mensonge\" (1965) and \"Elle est l\u00e0\" (1993). As a result of Sarraute's growing popularity and public profile, she was invited to speak at a number of literary events both in her native country of France and abroad."}, {"context": " Sarraute's work, including the novels \"Between Life and Death\" (1968), \"The Use of Speech\" (1980) and \"You Don't Love Yourself\" (1989), have been translated into more than 30 languages. Her work has often been referred to as \"difficult,\" as a result of her experimental style and abandonment of traditional literary conventions. Sarraute celebrated the death of the literary \"character\" and placed her primary emphasis on the creation of a faithful depiction of psychological phenomena, as in her novella \"The Golden Fruits\", consisting entirely of interior monologues, and the novel \"The Planetarium\" (1959), which focuses on a young man's obsession with moving into his aunt's apartment. The constantly shifting perspectives and points of view in Sarraute's work serve to undermine the author's hand, while at the same time embracing the incoherence of lived experience."}, {"context": " In contrast to the relative difficulty of Sarraute's novels, her memoir \"Childhood\" is considered an easier read. Penned when she was over eighty years old, Sarraute's autobiography is hardly a straightforward memoir, as she challenges her own capacity to accurately recall her past throughout the work. In the 1980s, the autobiography was adapted into a one-act Broadway play starring Glenn Close. The issues with memory which Sarraute highlighted in her autobiography carried through to her last novel, \"Here\", published in 1995, in which the author explores a range of existential issues relating to the formlessness of both individual and social reality.  Agn\u00e8s Varda dedicated her 1985 film \"Sans toit ni loi\" (Vagabonde) to her."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Schneitter", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Schneitter (born 19 June 1986 in Lommiswil) is a Swiss professional mountain biker. Throughout her sporting career, she has won numerous Swiss national championship titles (both under the junior and elite category), and more importantly, a gold medal in the under-23 category at the 2008 European Mountain Bike Championships. Schneitter also handed an opportunity to represent her nation Switzerland at the 2008 Summer Olympics, and later rode professionally for more than five seasons on an exclusive sponsorship contract with the Colnago Team."}, {"context": " Schneitter sought sporting headlines on the international scene at the 2008 European Mountain Bike Championships in Sankt Wendel, Germany, where she held off a tight battle against Slovenia's Tanja Zakelj and Czech Republic's Tereza Hu\u0159\u00edkov\u00e1 for the gold medal in the women's under-23 cross-country race, adding a silver to her early career resume from the World Junior Championships in Val di Sole, Italy. Few months later, Schneitter qualified for the Swiss squad, along with her teammate and 2007 world champion Petra Henzi, in the women's cross-country race at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing by receiving one of the nation's two available berths for her team from the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), based on her best performance at the World Cup series and Mountain Biking World Rankings. At the start of the race, Schneitter landed on her head into the ground on the initial lap, but managed to successfully complete a 4.8-km sturdy, treacherous cross-country course with a career-high, fifteenth-place effort in 1:53:42."}, {"context": " Shortly after the Olympics, Schneitter signed an exclusive sponsorship contract with Colnago-Cap-Arreghini Team for two additional seasons, followed by her short stint on Colnago-Arreghini-Sudtirol in 2010. In that same year, she defeated Italian rider Eva Lechner for the gold medal in the women's cross-country race at the fourth stage of the Nissan UCI MTB World Cup in Champ\u00e9ry, and later continued to flourish her mountain biking success by taking home the silver for her Swiss squad in the mixed team relay at the 2011 UCI World Championships.  Schneitter sought to compete for her second Swiss squad at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, but suffered heavily with a shoulder injury from the bike crash that sidelined her Olympic bid at the final stage of the UCI World Cup in La Bresse, France. She also affiliated with her former rival Lechner to lead Italy's Colnago-Fabre-S\u00fcdtirol for three more seasons, as her exclusive contract with the team was officially renewed until 2014."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Schneyder", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Schneyder (born May 25, 1968) is an American competitor in synchronised swimming and Olympic champion. Born in San Francisco, California, she was member of the American team that received a gold medal in synchronized swimming at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Schwarz", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Schwarz (born 29 July 1993) is an Austrian cross-country skier. She competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, in 10 kilometre classical, was part of the Austrian team that placed thirteenth in the relay, and competed in the women's sprint."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Selambarom", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Selambarom (born 3 February 1971) is a French female handball player. She was a member of the France women's national handball team. She was part of the team at the 2000 Summer Olympics, playing seven matches. On club level she played for Metz Handball in Metz."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sergueiew", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie \"Lily\" Sergueiew (1912\u20131950) was a double agent who worked for MI5 during World War II under the codename \"Treasure\". She played a significant role in Double-Cross System particularly by deceiving the Germans about the location of the D-Day landings. Sergueiew was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia (niece of General Yevgeny Miller), but her family fled to France following the Russian Revolution in 1917. She was educated in Paris, and trained as a journalist, being fluent in English, French and German. During the mid-1930s she travelled extensively throughout Germany, and once interviewed Hermann G\u00f6ring."}, {"context": " An attempt was made to recruit her by the German intelligence service in 1937, but she refused. However, after the fall of France she agreed to work for the \"Abwehr\". Her case officer, Major Emil Kliemann, trained her in intelligence gathering and communications techniques, and in 1943 she travelled to Spain, taking her beloved dog Frisson with her. Sergueiew promptly contacted the MI5 representative in Madrid and reported herself as a German spy and offered to work for British Intelligence. She was accepted, and travelled to England. Unfortunately British quarantine regulations meant that Frisson was left behind at Gibraltar."}, {"context": " Sergueiew was given the code-name \"Treasure\" and handled by MI5 officer Mary Sherer. \"Treasure\" turned out to be an effective agent, but was also described as \"exceptionally temperamental and troublesome\". She revealed her role as a double agent to her American boyfriend, and threatened to quit unless MI5 arranged for her dog to be brought from Spain. Matters came to a head in May 1944 when \"Treasure\" learned that Frisson had died. She informed MI5 that she had a secret signal, which would indicate to Kliemann that she was under British control and threatened to use it in revenge for the death of her dog. After a tumultuous meeting with Colonel T. A. Robertson, head of the section responsible for control of the Double Cross agents, she eventually revealed the secret code. \"Treasure\" continued to work for MI5, sending the Germans false information until a week after D-Day, when she was informed that her services were no longer required. However, MI5 continued transmitting messages from her for another five months. Perhaps the most important part of her work was that her long messages were re-encrypted in the German Enigma machines. This provided Bletchley Park with excellent cribs for the Cryptanalysis of the Enigma used by other Abwehr networks."}, {"context": " Sergueiew returned to France in late 1944, where she served in the French Women's Army Service. After the war she wrote a revealing memoir, describing her former MI5 employers as \"gangsters\". Her memoirs, entitled \"Secret Service Rendered\", were eventually published in 1968. While serving as a Russian language interpreter for Major John Barton Collings, the two fell in love and were married in Paris in 1946. At that time Collings was serving as the Military Governor of Erfurt, Germany, with responsibility for relocating the survivors of nearby Buchenwald, many of whom were Russians. Later they moved to Solon Township, MI, where Nathalie died on 17 May 1950 from kidney failure."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sesen\u0303a", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Sese\u00f1a (born 11 November 1967) is a Spanish actress. She began young, appearing in the children's series \"Celia\" and has become noted for her role in the TV series \"La que se avecina\" since 2007 playing Berta Escobar. She has appeared in films such as \"Killer Housewives (2001), \"C\u00e1sate conmigo, Maribel\" (2002), \"Todo menos la chica\" (2002), \"Lo mejor que le puede pasar a un cruas\u00e1n\" (2003) and \"El chocolate del loro\" (2004). She is dating with Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda de la Pe\u00f1a. There was a rumour they got a child, but Alberto Caballero denied it. In 2013 she adopted a dog named Pepe, and both go to the filming.  In 2018 Sese\u00f1a and Miryam Gallego sponsored Kotou, a clothes brand in Senegal."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Simard", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Simard (born 7 July 1969) is a pop singer from Quebec, Canada, and the sister of performer Ren\u00e9 Simard. Simard was born in \u00cele d'Orl\u00e9ans, near Quebec City, and was discovered by producer Guy Cloutier. Her first role was in a Laura Secord pudding commercial at age 2. She also appeared on some television shows, the first being \"Le Village de Nathalie\", a children's TV show where she wore a princess dress. She also hosted \"Les Mini-Stars de Nathalie\". Simard revealed she had been sexually abused by Cloutier since 1980. She sued him and his company Productions Guy Cloutier (PGC), for more than $1.2 million, but settled out of court. Cloutier was convicted of criminal charges in 2004 regarding this assault and that of another unidentified child. He subsequently received a 3.5 year prison term."}, {"context": " Michel Vastel's biography on Simard, \"Briser le Silence\" (\"Break the Silence\"), was published in 2005 () amid controversy. Vastel blasted Radio-Canada for continuing to work on television programs with Cloutier through his new company, Novem Communications. The book also charged Ren\u00e9 Simard with mishandling his sister's finances when he was her legal guardian, and with attempting to bribe her to keep details of Cloutier's abuses from the public. Ren\u00e9 Simard responded to these claims with a news conference denying details of Vastel's account."}, {"context": " Simard curtailed a tour for the 2007 album \"Il y avait un jardin\", her first album since the 1990s. She announced that she would leave the entertainment industry and move with her daughter to the Dominican Republic to escape scrutiny by the media after performing a final Montreal concert in April 2008. The Nathalie Simard Foundation, which she established in 2005 to assist sexually abused children, was also shut down. Following this cancellation, a $2.3 million lawsuit was filed against Simard and her production company in April 2008 claiming a loss of expected tour profits. Two additional lawsuits were also active as Yves Campeau sought $38,000 while her former manager \u00c9ric Dubois sought $60,000. Both Campeau and Dubois were reportedly ex-boyfriends of Simard."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Simon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Simon may refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Simon (athlete)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Simon (n\u00e9e Chevallier) (born 14 April 1962) is a former French athlete, who specialised in the 400 metres. Champion of France 400 meters in she was seventh in the 4 \u00d7 400 m relay at the 1987 World Championships, at Rome. She participated in the following year in the 1988 Seoul Olympics. Eliminated in the 400m heats, she took seventh in the 4 \u00d7 400 m relay. In 1987, she won the gold medal in the 400m at Mediterranean Games at Latakia, Syria."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sinclair", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Michelle Sinclair (born 1970) is a Canadian researcher in mathematics education who holds the Canada Research Chair in Tangible Mathematics Learning at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver. Sinclair was born in Grenoble, the daughter of Canadian academics who were on sabbatical there; she grew up in Calgary. She began her undergraduate studies at McGill University in business, but quickly switched to mathematics, and then earned a master's degree with Len Berggren at Simon Fraser on the history of mathematics and mathematics in medieval Islam.  She became a middle school teacher of mathematics and French on Bowen Island, then earned her Ph.D. in 2002 from Queen's University at Kingston, under the joint supervision of Peter Taylor of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics and William Higginson of the Faculty of Education. She did postdoctoral research at Simon Fraser and then took a faculty position at Michigan State University before returning once more to Simon Fraser."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Sorce", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Sorce is a Belgian singer from Mornimont. She was secretly registered in a talent competition by a relative and went on to win. In 2000, she won the Belgian Eurovision national selection and represented her country in the Eurovision Song Contest 2000 with the song \"Envie de vivre\", receiving only 2 points, placing last."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Stutzmann", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Stutzmann (born 6 May 1965) is a contemporary French classical and opera singer, renowned for her contralto voice, and a notable orchestral conductor. Born in Suresnes, \u00cele-de-France, she first studied with her mother (soprano Christiane Stutzmann), then at Nancy Conservatoire and later at the Ecole d\u2019Art Lyrique de l\u2019Op\u00e9ra de Paris, focusing on lied, under Hans Hotter's tutelage. She is well known for her interpretations of French m\u00e9lodies and German lieder. Her repertoire includes major works of baroque, classical, romantic and 20th-century music. Stutzmann also plays piano, bassoon and is a chamber musician. Stutzmann debuted as a concert singer at the Salle Pleyel, Paris, 1985, in Bach's Magnificat (BWV 243). Her recital debut was the following year in Nantes. Some of her operatic performances have included: Ombra felice (Mozart's pasticcio), Radamisto (Handel), Orfeo ed Euridice (Gluck) and Giulio Cesare (Handel). She has sung at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es, Royal Festival Hall / \u201cBBC Proms\u201d, Carnegie Hall, Musikverein, Mozarteum, the Concertgebouw, La Monnaie, the Suntory Hall in Tokyo, La Scala, the Op\u00e9ra de Gen\u00e8ve and the Berliner Philharmonie."}, {"context": " Stutzmann performs frequently for opera, concert, recital and recording. She began performing and recording with Swedish pianist Inger S\u00f6dergren in 1994. She took part in the project of Ton Koopman and the Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir to record Bach's complete vocal works. Nathalie Stutzmann is Chevalier des Arts et Lettres and continues (as of 2007) to perform around the world and teach master classes. In 2009 Stutzmann founded the chamber orchestra \"Orfeo 55\", which she directs, and performs more widely as an orchestral conductor. Commencing September 2017, she became the Principal Guest Conductor of the RT\u00c9 National Symphony Orchestra in Dublin, Ireland, with a contract for three years."}, {"context": " Il y a deux types d\u2019artistes : ceux qui s\u2019attachent toute leur vie \u00e0 montrer \u00e0 quel point ce qu\u2019ils sont en train de faire est difficile \u2013 ils ont leur public \u2013, puis il y a ceux qui passent leur vie \u00e0 essayer de faire croire que ce n\u2019est pas du tout difficile, cat\u00e9gorie \u00e0 laquelle j\u2019appartiens. C\u2019est sans doute aussi une forme de folie. C\u2019est moins spectaculaire, peut-\u00eatre, mais je pr\u00e9f\u00e8re que le public puisse aller \u00e0 l\u2019essentiel. Je ne veux pas qu\u2019il s\u2019arr\u00eate \u00e0 la performance, tout en la remarquant, mais qu\u2019il puisse s\u2019abandonner d\u2019abord \u00e0 la beaut\u00e9 de la musique."}, {"context": " \"There are two types of artists: those that strive their whole life to show how much what they're doing is difficult - they [do] have their audience -, then there are those who spend their life trying to make people believe it is not at all difficult, which is the category I belong to. That is also probably a form of madness. It is less spectacular, perhaps, but I prefer that the audience be able to go to what is essential [in the music]. I do not want them to stop at [being impressed with] the performance, even though they might notice it, but that they be able to abandon themselves to the beauty of the music.\""}, {"context": " She has over fifty recordings on labels including EMI, Erato, Deutsche Grammophon, Harmonia Mundi, Philips, RCA and Sony and Virgin. Some of her most admired recordings are of Schumann Lieder, Chausson and Poulenc melodies, Mahler Symphony No. 2 with Seiji Ozawa, Vivaldi\u2019s Nisi Dominus and Schubert's Winterreise for Calliope. In 2014 Stutzmann, with \"Orfeo 55\", made a new exclusive contract with Erato Records. She received many awards, including the Preis der deutschen Schallplattenkritik, Diapason d\u2019Or, Japan Record Academy Award, and a Grammy Award.  On her YouTube channel, there are several videos of her while she is conducting works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Richard Strauss, Mozart etc."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Tauziat", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Tauziat (born 17 October 1967) is a French former professional tennis player. She was the runner-up in women's singles at the 1998 Wimbledon Championships. Her career-high singles ranking was third in 2000. She currently coaches Canadian tennis player Bianca Andreescu. Tauziat was born in Bangui, Central African Republic. She is a first cousin of Didier Deschamps, a former captain of the French football team. About a week after Tauziat reached the Wimbledon final on 4 July 1998, Deschamps led France to win the World Cup on 12 July 1998."}, {"context": " Tauziat turned professional in 1984. She won her first singles title in 1990. She reached her only Grand Slam singles final at the 1998 Wimbledon Championships, beating Haruka Inoue, Iva Majoli, Julie Halard-Decugis, Samantha Smith, Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva before losing to Jana Novotn\u00e1. Her appearance in this final was the first by a Frenchwoman since Suzanne Lenglen in 1925. Tauziat was runner-up with partner Kimberly Po in the 2001 US Open women's doubles final, losing to the team of Lisa Raymond and Rennae Stubbs. She and partner Alexandra Fusai were doubles runners-up at the 1997 and 1998 Chase Championships. She was also part of the 1997 French Fed Cup team, which won its first title in the history of the competition."}, {"context": " Tauziat reached her career-high singles ranking of World No. 3 at the age of 32 years and 6 months in the spring of 2000, making her the oldest woman to debut in the top three and the fourth oldest to be ranked in the top three. She retired from the WTA Tour tennis circuit after the 2003 French Open, after having played only doubles in 2002 and 2003. Tauziat won 8 singles titles and 25 doubles titles during her career. She wrote a book with the title \"Les Dessous du tennis f\u00e9minin\" (published in 2001 in French) in which she gave her insights about life on the women's professional tennis circuit. In 2004 Tauziat received a state honour \u2013 le chevalier de la L\u00e9gion d'honneur \u2013 from French President Jacques Chirac for her contributions to international tennis. She was an official WTA tour mentor to French tennis player Marion Bartoli beginning in 2003.  Tauziat married Ramuncho Palaurena on 16 July 2005. The couple have three daughters, one born in 2005 and twin girls in June 2009."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Teirlinck", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Teirlinck () (born 1985 in Brussels) is a Belgian film director and screenwriter. In 2007, Teirlinck studied at the film department of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Ghent. Her three short films, \"An\u00e9mone\" (2006), \"Juliette\" (2007), and \"Venus vs. Me\" (2010), were all well received at international film festivals. Both \"An\u00e9mone\" and \"Juliette\" were awarded Best Short Film at the Flanders International Film Festival Ghent. \"An\u00e9mone\" was nominated at the Locarno Festival, and \"Venus vs. Me\" won the V.A.F. WildCard as well as the European Film Academy Award in the wake of the Berlin Film Festival in 2010."}, {"context": " After this, Teirlinck also directed music videos for Novastar, Lady Linn, Admiral Freebee, Amenra, and other artists. She made her theatrical directing debut with the 2009 production \"Send All Your Horses\", and she went on to direct three more productions: \"Yesterday\" (2011), \"Staring Girl\" (2012), and \"Slumberland\" (2015). The last two were nominated for the Theaterfestival, and \"Slumberland\" won the Music Theater Now award in New York City in 2015. Since 2012, Teirlinck has also been a guest instructor at the film department of her alma mater, The Royal Academy of Fine Arts, in Ghent."}, {"context": " Teirlinck's first feature-length film, \"Le Pass\u00e9 devant nous\" (international title: \"Past Imperfect\"), was released in 2016, with Canadian actress \u00c9velyne Brochu in the lead role. The film was produced by Savage Film\u2014famous for producing such films as \"Bullhead\"\u2014and was a co-production between Denmark and the Netherlands. The script won the Eurimages Award at CineMart during the International Film Festival Rotterdam in 2015, and, in September 2017, won two : the Industry Award and Best Debut. Teirlinck is originally from Brussels, but has been living in Ghent since 2006. In addition to her native Dutch, she also speaks French and English."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Teppe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Teppe (born 22 May 1972 in Bourg-en-Bresse, Ain) is a French heptathlete. She is the younger sister of Agn\u00e8s Teppe, who threw the discus. <br>"}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Thoumas", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Thoumas (born 30 April 1962 at Agen) is a former French middle-distance runner, who specialized in the 800 metres. In 1983, she won the gold medal at the Mediterranean Games, at Casablanca in Morocco. She won nine national titles in the 800\u00a0m: six outdoors at the French Athletics Championships in 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 and 1989, and three at the French Indoor Athletics Championships in 1984, 1988 and 1991. Her personal best at 800\u00a0m, established in 1987, is 1:59.83."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Timmermans", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Timmermans (born July 21, 1989 in Oldenzaal, Overijssel) is a Dutch softball player, who represents the Dutch national team in international competitions. Timmermans played for Run '71 Oldenzaal, Tex Town Tigers and since 2008 for Sparks Haarlem. She is a catcher and third baseman who bats and throws right-handed. She competes for the Dutch national team since 2007. That same year she was named the best batter of the Dutch Softball Hoofdklasse. She was part of the Dutch team for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Vadim", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Vadim (born 1958) is the daughter of Roger Vadim and actress Annette Stroyberg. While her father was married to Oscar-winning actor Jane Fonda, Vadim's family would go on vacations that lasted several weeks or a month to Saint-Tropez or the Arcachon Bay and spend time in the mountains or on the water. In May 1987, Vadim worked as second assistant director on her father's remake film \"And God Created Woman\". Like her father, she has been involved in directing many films."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Vie\u0301rin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Vi\u00e9rin (born 15 October 1982) is a retired Italian professional tennis player. Her career high WTA singles ranking is No. 103, which she reached on May 15, 2006. Her career high doubles ranking is No. 304, set 24 September 2007. She has won 6 singles ITF titles. Nathalie Vi\u00e9rin retired from professional tennis 2010. She is coached by Franco Bonaiti. Born and raised in Sarre, Aosta Valley, her parents, Angela Sirianni and Robert Vi\u00e9rin, run a tennis club, where she began playing when she was 3. Vi\u00e9rin has two younger brothers, Matthieu and Julien. Baseliner who prefers clay; favorite shot is forehand. Nickname is Natha. Admires Monica Seles. Likes to visit the beach in Bol, Croatia. Favorite movie is Dirty Dancing; favorite actor is Julia Roberts; favorite book is Palomino by Danielle Steel. Says Wimbledon is the best tournament."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Weinzierl", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Weinzierl (born 8 April 1994) is a German figure skater. She is a two-time German national champion (2014, 2017) and has won eight senior international medals, including three gold. She has placed as high as 7th at the European Championships and competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Nathalie Weinzierl was born in Saarbr\u00fccken, Germany. She trained in alpine racing at SC Frankenthal from 1999\u20132005. Weinzierl began training in figure skating in 2001 at Mannheim MERC, coached by G\u00fcnter Z\u00f6ller from 2002. She won the German bronze medal on the novice level in 2006, silver on the youth level in 2007, and silver as a junior in 2008. She began competing on the national senior level in the 2008\u20132009 season, placing 13th in her debut. She changed coaches in August 2009, joining Karin Stephan."}, {"context": " In the 2009\u20132010 season, Weinzierl debuted on the Junior Grand Prix series, placing 24th and 28th in her two events. Toward the end of the season, she made her first appearance on the international senior level, finishing 5th at the 2010 Triglav Trophy. Peter Sczypa became her coach in August 2011. Weinzierl competed with a broken blade in the free skate at the 2012 German Championships. She was assigned to her first ISU Championships, the 2012 European Championships, where she finished 22nd. She then won her first senior international medal, gold, at the 2012 Bavarian Open. She withdrew from the 2012 Coupe du Printemps."}, {"context": " Weinzierl returned to the JGP series, finishing 9th and 10th in her two events, and then won her first senior national medal, silver, at the 2013 German Championships. After placing 9th in her second Europeans, she competed at the 2013 World Junior Championships, finishing 10th. Weinzierl was also assigned to her first senior World Championships and placed 19th. Weinzierl took gold at the Merano Cup and bronze at the Cup of Nice before winning her first senior national title at the 2014 German Championships. She competed at the Europeans, finishing 8th. Weinzierl was selected to represent Germany at the Winter Olympics, held in February 2014 in Sochi, Russia. Ranked 10th in the short program and 21st in the free skate, she finished 18th overall in the ladies' event. In March, she placed 12th at the 2014 World Championships in Saitama, Japan."}, {"context": " Weinzierl missed the first half of the season due to a back injury. She withdrew from both her Grand Prix assignments. Weinzierl competed at two Challenger events, placing 5th at Lombardia Trophy and 7th at Ondrej Nepela Trophy. She won the silver medal at the German Championships behind Nicole Schott. At the 2015 European Championships in Stockholm, Sweden, she placed 12th. Weinzierl started her season with a 9th place at the 2015 Nebelhorn Trophy. She competed at two additional Challenger events, placing 10th at Ice Challenge and 6th at Tallinn Trophy. She won her third silver medal from the German Championships, this time behind Lutricia Bock. At the 2016 European Championships in Bratislava, Slovakia, Weinzierl placed 7th in both segments and overall. She did not qualify to the free skate at the 2016 World Championships in Boston, placing 35th in the short program.  \"GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix\""}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Younglai", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Younglai is a Canadian writer, director, producer, and harpist. She is the founder of Toronto's Writers of Colour in TV & Film group. She was the writing mentor for the Reel Asian Film Festival's Unsung Voices summer workshop for youth and speaker at Reel Asian's 2012 industry series. She is currently a creator optioned with Entertainment One. She studied TV writing and producing at a post-graduate program at Humber College in Toronto, ON, Canada. Younglai began her career in television show production and writing. In 2006, Younglai began her work for Canadian TV series Til Debt Do Us Part (Slice CNBC) with research for 22 episodes and miscellaneous crew for 48 episodes until 2008. In 2009, she edited the story for 2 episodes. From 2008 to 2011, she directed 15 episodes. In 2010 to 2012, she directed 9 episodes for Prince$$ (Slice CNBC). In 2011, she was the field director of Top Chef Canada (season 2) (Food Network Canada)."}, {"context": " Younglai was the executive producer, writer, and director of her first short \"Corrugated Violin\" in 2010. Then she directed science fiction/drama short \"The Sound That Broke the Silence,\" which premiered at the 2013 ReelWorld Film Festival and was one of the ACTRA Young Emerging Actors Assembly (YEAA) showcase. She is a co-writer for Korean Canadian comedy film Stand Up Man, which was fully funded on Indiegogo on August 13, 2016. Stand Up Man is filmed in Windsor, Ontario and Toronto. The film is directed by Aram Collier and produced by Tony Lau."}, {"context": " Younglai was selected to participate in the 2011 Writers Guild of Canada-Bell Media Diverse Screenwriters Program. She was awarded a 2013 Ontario Arts Council playwriting grant and the 2012 Global Writers Apprenticeship. The Toronto Screenwriting Conference named Younglai as one of 5 emerging writer recipients of the 2013 Telefilm New Voices Award, Since February 1992, Younglai has composed, performed and recorded as the harpist in duo with flutist Catherine Richardson. Younglai and Richardson have been featured as guest artists at numerous concerts, such as the Les Concerts Ponticello in Gatineau, St. Matthews\u2019 Christmas Magic Candlelight Concert, St. Paul\u2019s Celtic Christmas concert, and the Circle of Harmony\u2019s Christmas Concert in 2008. They also sponsor the Variante Harp & Flute Duo Scholarship for the Burlington Rotary Musical Festival."}, {"context": " Younglai started playing Suzuki violin at age 4 and the Suzuki harp at age 12 under Marie Lorcini. As a harpist, she achieved awards including the Toronto Kiwanis Scholarship and the Lee Hepner Award for musical excellence. She soloed with the Hamilton Philharmonic Youth Orchestra, and the Guelph Chamber Orchestra, and played with Te Deum Chamber Orchestra, the Hamilton Philharmonic, Symphony Hamilton, the Toronto Youth Wind Ensemble, and the Guelph Concert Band. Younglai created the soundtrack for a documentary about the Young Offender's Act. Nathalie has taught music at the Hamilton Suzuki school of Music, the Halton Waldorf School, as well as privately.  Younglai lives in Toronto, ON, Canada. Nathalie\u2019s writing has been published in the Globe and Mail, the Hamilton Spectator and Am\u00f6i magazine."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie Zand", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natalia Zylberlast-Zand (born. 1883 or 27 March 1884 in Warsaw - died 23 or 24 September 1942 ) was a Polish Jewish neurologist. She was the daughter of David and Emilia n\u00e9e Batawia. Zand conducted research and was a regular contributor to French medical journals. She worked closely with Edward Flatau, considered the founder of modern neurology. In 1930, she published her book \"Les plexus choro\u00efdes: Anatomie, physiologie, pathologie\" on the choroid plexus. Before World War II she worked at the Jewish Hospital in Czyste in Warsaw.  During the war she was imprisoned in the Warsaw ghetto, where she continued to work as a doctor. On the night of 23 to 24 September 1942, she was deported to Pawiak prison, where she was probably executed."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie de Vries", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie de Vries (born 1965 in Appingedam) is a Dutch architect, lecturer and urbanist. In 1993 together with Winy Maas and Jacob van Rijs she set up MVRDV. Early work such as the television centre Villa VPRO and the housing estate for elderly WoZoCo, both in the Netherlands, have brought her international acclaim and established MVRDV\u2019s leading role in international architecture. She completed her studies at the Delft University of Technology and worked afterwards at Dutch firm Mecanoo. She lectures and teaches throughout the world and takes part in international juries. She has been guest professor at the TU Berlin (2002-2004) and was the 2005 Morgenstern Visiting Critic at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. She has also been teaching at the Berlage Institute in Rotterdam, the ABK in Arnhem and the Delft University of Technology. In 2013 she became a professor at German academy of art Kunstakademie D\u00fcsseldorf."}, {"context": " In 1991, together with Winy Maas and Jacob van Rijs, she founded the MVRDV studio (an acronym of the initials of the names of the three founders), which produces designs and studies in the fields of architecture, urban studies and landscape design. The studies on light urbanism for the City of Rotterdam, the headquarters of the Dutch Public Broadcasting Company VPRO and the Wozoco's senior citizens' residences in Amsterdam, which won the J.A. van Eck Prize of the Dutch Architects' Association, have brought MVRDV to the attention of a vast collection of clients, giving the studio international renown. Today, the studio is actively involved in numerous projects in various parts of the world. MVRDV designed the Dutch pavilion for Expo 2000 in Hanover, the Logrono Eco-City in Spain, the Gyre building in Tokyo and many others."}, {"context": " From 1999 to 2005 she was a board member of the Netherlands Architecture Fund (1999/2005). She was member of the Gestaltungsbeirat of Salzburg (Austria, 2003/2006) and since 2004 she has been a member of the foundation board for the Dutch architectural journal \"Oase\". From 2005 to 2008 Nathalie de Vries was National Railroad Architect on behalf of ProRail/NS, the Dutch National Railway corporation. She recently joined the supervisory board of Groninger Museum in Groningen. Nathalie de Vries is married to Jacob van Rijs. They live in Rotterdam, Netherlands and have two daughters. Nathalie de Vries is one of the few women co-leading an international architecture firm. Others are Zaha Hadid, Francine Houben and Farshid Moussavi."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie den Dekker", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Marina Hendrika Maria Den Dekker (June 26, 1989) is a Dutch lawyer and beauty queen who was crowned Miss Universe Netherlands 2012 and represented her country at the Miss Universe 2012 pageant as well as other international pageants. Den Dekker studied Law. Her interests include reading, spending time with friends and family, and swimming. She describes herself as a confident person who is hard-working, friendly and committed. Den Dekker is designated as representative for the Netherlands at Miss World and Miss Universe 2012 by Kim Kotter, national director of Miss Nederland as Miss Nederland took place during the Miss Universe competition."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie du Pasquier", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie Du Pasquier (born 1957 in France) is a Milan-based artist and designer mostly known for her work as a founding member of the Memphis Group. Her early body of work included furniture, textiles, clothing designs and jewelry in addition to iconic work in decoration and patterns. Since 1987, she has consistently dedicated herself to painting. Du Pasquier was born in Bordeaux, France, in 1957. From 1975 to 1977, she traveled through Gabon and West Africa, and in 1979 she moved to Milan. In Milan, she met the designer George Sowden and in 1981, she and Sowden were asked to become two of the founding members of the Memphis Group by designer and architect Ettore Sottsass. As a member of the Memphis Group, du Pasquier designed many textiles and furniture.  In 1985, du Pasquier started painting, and by 1987 it became her elected medium. She has had exhibitions in many galleries worldwide, including Exile in Berlin and Chamber in New York. She has continued to design textiles, including patterns for clothes produced by American Apparel in 2014 and blankets and other bedding, with George Sowden, for Zig Zag Zurich in 2015."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie von Siebenthal", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie von Siebenthal (born 30 September 1993) is a Swiss cross country skier. She competed in the World Cup 2015 season. She represented Switzerland at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2015 in Falun. All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS)."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie, Virginia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Halifax County, Virginia, United States, in the south-central region of the state. The population as of the 2010 census was 183. Located in northern Halifax County at (36.9348619, \u221278.9472347), at an altitude of , it lies along Road 603 north of the town of Halifax, the county seat of Halifax County. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which , or 0.76%, are water. The community is drained by tributaries of Catawba Creek, which flows northeast to the Roanoke River at Clarkton."}, {"context": " It received its name in 1890 or 1891, being named after Natalie Otey (not \"Nathalie\"), daughter of Mrs. Rebecca Wimbish, an important local landowner. Prior to that time, the village at this location was considered to be a part of the Nathaniel Barksdale plantation. It had included a church since 1773 (the first Catawba Baptist Church) and a post office since 1828. This post office continues to operate today with the ZIP code of 24577. The Clarkton Bridge over the Roanoke or \"Staunton\" River northeast of town was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2006."}]}, {"title": "Nathalie...", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalie... is a 2003 French drama film directed by Anne Fontaine, and starring Fanny Ardant, Emmanuelle B\u00e9art, and G\u00e9rard Depardieu. The screenplay concerns a woman who discovers that her husband is cheating on her. Catherine discovers that her husband Bernard is cheating on her. She decides to pay Parisian prostitute Nathalie to have an affair with her husband, and report back to her. \"Nathalie...\" received generally positive reviews, currently holding a 73% \"fresh\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes. On Metacritic, which uses an average of critics' reviews, the film holds a 69/100 rating, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\"."}, {"context": " Director Atom Egoyan remade the film in 2009 under the title \"Chloe\". The film stars Julianne Moore, Liam Neeson, and Amanda Seyfried. A reviewer in the \"New York Daily News\" (Elizabeth Weizmann) contrasting the original with the remake says Egoyan \"Having adapted a film\u2014via Erin Cressida Wilson's screenplay\u2014from an erotic French drama called \"Nathalie\", Egoyan appears convinced that he's creating a suspenseful work of art, rather than a mildly kinky bit of arthouse exploitation.\" However, in his self-promotion, the director of the remake, Egoyan, described \"Chloe\" as more erotically charged than \"Nathalie...\""}]}, {"title": "Nathalis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalis is a genus of butterflies in the family Pieridae."}]}, {"title": "Nathalis iole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalis iole, the dainty sulphur or dwarf yellow, is a North American butterfly in the family Pieridae. This species is the smallest North American pierid. A rare population, known from Homestead (Smith et al., 1994), is said to have mostly white individuals. Some feel that the dainty sulphur is so unique among pierids, in shape and in several structural features, that it should belong in a separate subfamily. Its appearance is highly variable but identification should not be a problem. The forewings elongated shape is distinctive. The upperside of the wings is yellow with the tip of the forewing being black. Black bars extend along the trailing edge of the forewing and the leading edge of the hindwing. Male dainty sulphurs have an oval scent patch (called an androconial spot) in each hindwing bar. The androconial spot is reddish orange but fades to pale yellow after death. The underside of the wings varies depending on the season. Summer individuals have yellowish hindwings whereas winter individuals have greenish-gray hindwings. Both forms have black spots near the forewing margin and have a yellowish-orange patch near the base of the forewing."}, {"context": " Similar species in the dainty sulphur's range include the barred yellow (\"Eurema daira\") and the little yellow (\"Eurema lisa\"). The barred yellow is larger than the dainty sulphur, and the underside of the wings is either all grayish white or brownish red. The little yellow is also larger than the dainty sulphur, lacks the dorsal forewing and hindwing black bars, and on the underside of the forewing lacks the black spots and the yellowish-orange patch. The species lives in almost any open space including coastal flats, deserts, fields, roadsides, vacant lots and waste areas. It usually flies very low to the ground."}, {"context": " Males patrol just inches above the ground in search of females. If a male finds a female and is faced with rejection, males are likely to engage in an open-winged display, showing off their dorsal bars and their androconial spots. This last-resort effort to impress the female will often make her reconsider her unwise decision. Females lay their lemon-yellow or orange-yellow eggs singly on young or emerging leaves of the host plant. The eggs will hatch within 4\u20137 days. The larvae are quite variable. Some larvae are dark green, while others are dark green with bright pinkish-purple stripes. The stiff haired larvae have two pinkish-red bumps just above the head. The green or yellow-green chrysalis is covered with yellow-white dots. It lacks a projection on the head which is found in most pierids. The dainty sulphur will migrate south to spend the winter because it is unable to survive the cold. If day length is short when it is a larva, the dainty sulphur produces a winter phenotype upon forming its chrysalis which will then produce a butterfly with three times the usual number of dark scales. This allows it to absorb solar heat more easily. It has multiple broods per year.  Here are a list of host plants used by the dainty sulphur:"}]}, {"title": "Nathaly Arroba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathaly Arroba Hurtado (born March 26, 1989) is a model and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss International Ecuador 2013 and represented Ecuador at Miss International 2013. She was born in Guayaquil, Arroba speaks Spanish, English, Portuguese and French. She graduated with a Hotel and Turism degree from the UEES. Arroba, who stands tall, competed as a representative of Guayas, one of the 15 contestants in her country's national beauty pageant, Miss Ecuador 2013, broadcast live on March 8, 2013 from Guayaquil, where she gained the right to represent Ecuador at Miss International 2013.  Arroba represented Ecuador at the Miss International 2013 pageant on December 17, 2013 in Japan where she placed on the Top 15."}]}, {"title": "Nathaly Kurata", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathaly Junko Shimizu Kurata (born 10 February 1993) is a Brazilian tennis player. Kurata has a career high WTA singles ranking of 429, achieved on 5 February 2018. She also has a career high WTA doubles ranking of 387, achieved on 24 November 2014. Kurata has won 4 ITF singles titles and 4 ITF doubles titles. Kurata made her Fed Cup debut for Brazil in 2018."}]}, {"title": "Nathaly Navas", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathaly Andre\u00edna Navas P\u00e9rez is a model and pageant titleholder, born in La Guaira, Venezuela, on February 8, 1987. She was present on the Elite Model Look Cura\u00e7ao 2004 and Elite Model Look Shanghai 2004. Had a role on Con toda el Alma TV serie in Venezuela. She represented the Delta Amacuro state in the Miss Venezuela 2008 pageant, on September 10, 2008. Worked in many TV commercials like McDonald's, Levi's, Panasonic, Orbit, etc. Navas competed in the Sambil Model / Miss Earth Venezuela 2009 pageant on June 12, 2009, in Margarita Island, Venezuela, when she won the title of \"1st runner up\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathalys Ceballos", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathalys Ceballos (born March 10, 1990) is a Puerto Rican handball player who plays for the club Rio Grande Handball. She is member of the Puerto Rican national team. She competed at the 2015 World Women's Handball Championship in Denmark."}]}, {"title": "Natham", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham is a Taluka in Dindigul district in the Madurai Region Indian state of Tamil Nadu. India census, Natham had a population of 22,533. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Natham has an average literacy rate of 40%, lesser than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 36%, and female literacy is 46%. In Natham, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. The number of drop outs in this village is also higher.KosuKurichi , Sendurai and Sirugudi are leading villages."}, {"context": " The Tamil culture is Pandiya's era and the language style is different from other districts. Natham has a Mariamman Temple which conducts annual rituals that are famous in the entire group of villages. The festivals during the season include people performing various activities to Amman viz \u2013 Pal Kodam, walking on fire, carrying fire pots, In this festival very famous conducting yearly once etc. Natham Kovilpatty Kailasanathar temple is very famous in navakiraka pooja that was built many years back."}, {"context": " Churches, Masjid are available.The Natham Periya Pallivasal was constructed in the year of 1900. All festivals are celebrated well with people of Natham. Natham is famous for Mango, Tamarind, Coconut, Guava, Cotton business/ready-made shirts and also for cereals and pulses. In addition the trade in Non-timber forest produce (NTFP) enhances the economy of Natham. The regions in and around Natham are agriculturally fertile. There are many cotton mills are started and it produces huge employment opportunities for local people."}, {"context": " Kallalagar CBSE School Natham DuraiKamalam Government Hr. Secondary School (Boys), Kovilpatty, Natham. Government Girls Hr Secondary School, Natham. Meenakshi Matriculations School, Kovilpatty, Natham. Landis Matriculation Hr. Secondary School, Anna Nagar, Natham.- (This school earned district third rank (496/500) in the sslc examination in the year 2014-15.) R.C. Little Flower middle & hr secondary schools, Pappapatty, Natham. RC Matriculation School, Natham, Ramsuns Matriculation School, Natham.( A girl from Ramsun's Matric school earned district third rank (490/500) in the SSLC examinations in the year 2011\u201312)"}, {"context": " Sarva Seva Hr Secondary School, Ayyanarpuram, Natham. Peniel Matriculation School, Vemparali, Natham. Peniel teacher training institutions, Vrmparali, Natham. NPR Arts & Science College, Natham NPR College of Engineering(No IT department, it is closed due to no admission), Natham NPR Catering & Hotel Management(closed-no admission), Natham NPR College of Education(closing in progress), Natham NPR Polytechnic College, Natham NPR Teacher Training Institute, Natham NPR is providing 100% placement for their students"}, {"context": " The famous 'poricha' parota alias oil fried parota has its roots from here. Most famous one is 'yusuf bhai' parota shop which is open only in mornings and evenings. check with locals for locating the shop as it has no sign boards. Taj hotel in madurai road, in front of bus stand sells the fried parota for lunch as well. For meal lovers kundathoor military hotel provides non-veg meals at afforfable cost. curry and gravy are must try. it's on kottambatti / karaikudi road, a few meters after madurai road."}, {"context": " KOVILPATTY Natham has a bus stand, which is used by RMTC and private operators. This is situated center of the town on Madurai and Dindigul. Natham city has well connected by Government & Private busses, Chennai, Madurai, Melur, Trichy, Sivaganga, Manamadurai, Dindigul, Karaikudi, Kodaikanal,Theni, Kumuli(Kerala), Coimbatore, Tripur, Karur, Erode, Pudukottai, Pattukotttai, Aranthangi, Devakottai, Ponnamaravathi, Ramanathapuram, Rameshwaram, Virudhunagar, Nagoor, Velankanni, Thirusendur and all around the neighboring districts bus route are Well Connected. Trichy Railway Stations 90km from Natham, Madurai Railway Stations 40km from Natham and Dindigul Railway Station is the nearest railway station 33 km from the Natham city."}, {"context": " Madurai Airport is the nearest airport for Natham 45km distance, Trichy International airport just 90km from Natham city. which operates domestic flight services such as Air India, Jet Airways and Spice Jet Natham is famous for tasty Mango and Tamarind. Also it is famous for crispy parotta. It lies in between Madurai, and Four falls situated at Karanthamalai hills near Natham. Dindigul and Karaikudi. It takes only an hour to reach either Madurai or Dindigul from Natham. It is a 2-hour journey from Natham to Karaikudi. Trichy takes about 1.45 hours journey from Natham, and Karur takes about 2.15 hours journey from Natham. India's second largest theatre found in Natham near KosuKurichi. Maariamman temple is the main speciality in Natham. Every year at the end of February festival begins. For 15 days the people from many other districts celebrate this festival. Being surrounded by hills like Karanthamalai and Karadikoodu makes the place pleasant."}, {"context": " No major industry is located in Natham. Small scale industries can be seen. The major product is coir with raw materials of coconut. Plenty of opportunity is available for investment. Climate is good as Natham surrounded by hills. Pleasant nights are a gift to Nattamties. Alagar Malai & Karanthamalai is a Wall for Natham taluk. Natham is a legislative constituency having 3,43.459 voters. M.A. Andi Ambalam (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam) is the current Member of Legislative assembly from Natham. Natham constituency is part of Dindigul (Lok Sabha constituency)."}]}, {"title": "Natham (state assembly constituency)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham is a state assembly constituency in Dindigul district in Tamil Nadu. Elections and Winners from this constituency are listed below."}]}, {"title": "Natham Kilakarai", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham is a village near Kilakarai in Keelakarai taluk of Ramanathapuram district where the grave of Muhammad Ja'afar Shaheed (called as Mujabar auliya by the local people) who came along with Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed Badhusha of Erwadi is found."}]}, {"title": "Natham Palayam", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham palayam is a small village. Located in Kanakkam palayam panjayat, Tirupur taluk, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India."}]}, {"title": "Natham Patti", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham Patti is a village in Srivilliputhur taluk, Virudhunagar district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is on National Highway 208, about 58\u00a0km south-west of Madurai and well connected by road with Madurai, Tenkasi. It has more than 1000 families. Natham Patti is near Srivilliputtur (15\u00a0km) and Madurai (50\u00a0km). Temperature range is 20\u00a0\u00b0C to 37\u00a0\u00b0C.It has a high mean temperature and a low degree of humidity.The climate of the village ranges from dry sub-humid to semi-arid. The village has three distinct periods of rainfall: (1) Advancing monsoon period, South West monsoon (from June to September), with strong southwest winds; (2) North East monsoon (from October to December), with dominant northeast winds; and (3) Dry season (from January to May)."}]}, {"title": "Natham taluk", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham taluk is a taluk of Dindigul district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The headquarters of the taluk is the town of Natham. According to the 2011 census, the taluk of Natham had a population of 158,411 with 79,947 males and 78,464 females. There were 981 women for every 1000 men. The taluk had a literacy rate of 65.51. Child population in the age group below 6 was 8,821 Males and 8,478 Females."}]}, {"title": "Natham, Gummidipoondi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Natham is a village in the Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu, India. It is located in the Gummidipoondi taluk. Sri Jayaram Institute of Engineering and Technology is located near this village. According to the 2011 census of India, Natham has 626 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 65.17%."}]}, {"title": "Nathampannai", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathampannai is a panchayat town in Pudukkottai district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. India census, Nathampannai had a population of 6398. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Nathampannai has an average literacy rate of 72%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 79%, and female literacy is 65%. In Nathampannai, 12% of the population is under 6 years."}]}, {"title": "Nathamuni", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathamuni was a Vaishnava theologian who collected and compiled the Nalayira Divya Prabandham. Considered the first of Sri Vaishnava \"\u0101ch\u0101ry\u0101s\", Nathamuni is also the author of \"Yogarahasya\", and \"Ny\u0101yatattva\". Nathamuni is generally considered to have been born in 823 AD and to have died in 951 AD. His birth name was Aranganathan however he was known as Nathamuni or literally the \"Saint lord\" (\"Nathan\"-lord, \"muni\"-saint) An alternative view is that he was born in 582 AD and died in 922 AD. Yet another view is that Nathamuni was born at Viranarayana Puram sometime shortly after 907 AD and flourished in the 10th century. The traditional view that he lived for than 400 years is untenable. It is likely that Nathamuni lived for slightly over a hundred years in that region controlled by the Chola kings before they rose to the peak of their greatness.His birth star was Anusham."}, {"context": " Though there is difficulty in fixing Nathamuni's date of birth and age, he is considered to have lived during the lifetime of Madhurakavi Alvar's Parampara. That Nathamuni was in contact with Nammalvar is attested by the \"Guru-parampar\u0101\", \"Divya s\u016bri charita\", and \"Prappann\u0101m\u0157ta\". The \"Prappann\u0101m\u0157ta\" also attests that Nathamuni was born in the village Viranarayana. Viranarayana is today generally identified as Kattumannarkoil. Nathamuni is said to have died at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. His father's name was I\u015bvara Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da and his son's name was I\u015bvaramuni. His grandson was Yamunacharya who was probably named in commemoration of a pilgrimage that Nathamuni took to the banks of the Yamuna along with his son (I\u015bvara Muni) and daughter-in-law."}, {"context": " It is believed that his other names were Sadamarsana Kula Tilakar, Sottai Kulaththu Arasar and Ranganatha Acharya. He spent time travelling in north India. He came to know about Nalayira Divya Prabhandam, but he heard only 10 hymns. He wanted the rest. He recited 12000 times, Kanninun Siruthambu, a poem in praise of Nammazhwar. Nammazhwar appeared and gave the 4000 hymns(Nalayira Divya Prabhandam). He was the one who brought back the 4000 hymns. In addition to teaching the hymns to his two nephews at Srirangam, he introduced them into the Srirangam Temple Service at the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam where he was the Temple Administrator.\"The story goes that Nathamuni, while at the Vishnu temple at Mannargudi, his native place, heard some Brahmins from the Southern end of the Peninsula recite Tamil verses of Satakopa addressed to the Vishnu God of Kumbhakonam and was charmed with their sense and diction. He also found that these verses concluded with the words \u201cThese 10 out of the thousand, composed by Satakopa\u201d. Nathamuni thus placed in the track of research seems to have finally recovered the whole of Satakopa\u2019s works and then rearranged them and the extant works of the other Alwars into four collections of about a thousand stanzas each.\""}, {"context": " The ritual of worship as followed in Vishnu Temples is based on two early standard works. The first being \"Vaikhanasa Sutra\" which probably belongs to the Krishna Yajurveda school. The other is the \"Panchratra Agama\" which belongs to the extensive \"Tantra\" literature, believed to have been composed by Narayana himself. The Agama has a peculiar philosophy of its own, the Bhagavata Cult, which is very old and is referred to in the Mahabharata and \"Badarayana Sutras\". Nathamuni, made a provision for the recitation of Tamil vedas on appropriate occasions during the main festivals of the lord."}, {"context": " He is thought to be the originator of the Araiyar Sevai. The modern days 'Thathachariars' a sect of Tamil Nadu Iyengars are the descendants of this Aacharya, housing a lot of great people in Sri Vaishnavism ranging from Sri Alavandar ( Sri Yamunacharya), Sri Thirumalai Nambikal, Sri Emberumanar, Sri Kurugesar, Sri Panchamatha bandhana Thatha Desikan, Sri Kotikannikadhana Sri Lakshmi Kumara Thathachariar. The disciples of this Aacharya known as 'Melayagaththalwan' and 'Keelayagaththalwan' families propagated this Aarayar Sampradhayam."}, {"context": " Nammazhwar's songs are sung to this day at Srirangam and other places of where Vishnu is worshipped. Nathamuni is said to have set them into music after his discovery of these verses. During that period, a dancing girl sang songs in the same celestial tune (in which Nathamuni set the prabandhams into music) at the court of the Chola king in \"Gangaikondacholapuram.\" The tune was rare and could not be appreciated by the common folk and hence the king slighted the dancer. The dancer travelled to the Veeranarayanapuram vishnu temple and sang before God in the same celestial tune. This was appreciated by Nathamuni who understood the nuances of the tune. On hearing that Nathamuni himself had appreciated the dancer's singing, the king visited the temple and enquired why Nathamuni had appreciated that unfamiliar tune. To display his prowess, Nathamuni ordered several cymbals to be sounded and determined the weight of the cymbals from the pitch of the sound that they produced. This impressed the king and he accepted the superiority of the celestial tune."}, {"context": " There is an inconsistency in this anecdote. During the time of Nathamuni (late 9th century), \"Uraiyur\" was the capital of the Chola kings, and Gangaikondacholapuram had not been founded yet. However, it is possible that the site of the city was used as an alternative capital or had a palace that was frequented by the kings. One of Nathamuni's most illustrious disciples was Pundarikaksha, who hasn't left any literary work behind him. It is believed that Nathamuni had a vision where he foresaw the birth of his grandson Yamunacharya and deputed Pundarikaksha to be his spiritual guru (who in turn deputed his disciple \"Ramamisra\" to guide Yamunacharya)."}, {"context": " It is said that Nathamuni once asked Pundarikaksha to escort his wife \"Aravindappavai\" to the residence of her father \"Vangi-purathachi.\" On reaching the house of Vangi-purathachi he was served stale food as he was from an inferior caste among Brahmins (Choliah). Yet he never resented the apparent slight and indignity, but accepted it cheerfully. When Nathamuni heard of this incident, he realised that it was a mark of \"high spiritual\" advancement and called him by the name of Uyyakondar - \u201cSavior of the new dispensation\u201d."}]}, {"title": "Nathan", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan or Natan may refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Nathan \"Nearest\" Green", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Nearest\" Green (1820), incorrectly spelled \"Nearis\" in an 1880 census, was an African-American head stiller, commonly referred to now as a master distiller. Born into slavery and emancipated after the Civil War, he is known as the master distiller who taught distilling techniques to Jack Daniel, founder of the Jack Daniel Tennessee whiskey distillery. Green was hired as the first master distiller for Jack Daniel Distillery and he was the first African-American master distiller on record in the United States."}, {"context": " Sometime in the 1850s, when Jack Daniel was a boy, he went to work for Dan Call, a preacher, grocer and distiller. According to company lore, the preacher was a busy man, and when he saw promise in young Jack, he taught him how to run his whiskey still. However, in June 2016, \"The New York Times\" published a story identifying Daniel's true teacher as Green, one of Call's slaves. The newspaper said that the Green story has been known to historians and locals for decades, even as the distillery officially ignored it. Green's story \u2013 built on oral history and the thinnest of archival trails \u2013 may never be definitively proved. A \"USA Today\" article published in July 2017 corrected the spelling of his name (Nearis) and confirmed that Jack Daniel said his correct name was Nathan \"Nearest\" Green."}, {"context": " Green was documented as being owned by a firm known as Landis & Green, who likely hired him out to Call for a fee. Green was one of a few enslaved people who worked for Call who stayed on with him after Emancipation. When introducing Green to an 8-year old Jack Daniel, Call is quoted as saying, \"Uncle Nearest is the best whiskey maker that I know of.\" Call reportedly said to Green, \"I want [Jack] to become the world's best whiskey distiller \u2013 if he wants to be. You help me teach him.\" Green served as master distiller. According to one biographer, \"Only a few years older than Jack, [Green] taught him all about the still.\""}, {"context": " Known as Nearest Green, or \"Uncle Nearest\" (at times misspelled as \"Nearis\"), he played the fiddle and was a lively entertainer. Green descendants say this trait was passed down to his son, Jesse Green. Slavery ended with ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865. Daniel opened his distillery a year later, immediately employing two of Green's sons, George and Eli Green. In all, at least three of Green's sons were a part of the Jack Daniel Distillery staff: George Green, Edde Green, and Eli Green. At least four of Nearest's grandchildren joined the Jack Daniel team, Ott, Charlie, Otis and Jesse Green. In all, seven straight generations of Nearest Green descendants have worked for Jack Daniel Distillery, with three direct descendants continuing to work there in the early 21st century ."}, {"context": " Nathan \"Nearest\" Green was married to Harriet Green, and they had eleven children together \u2013 nine sons and two daughters. Four of their sons, Louis, George, Jesse, and Eli, are listed in the 1870 census. Seven of the sons and both daughters are listed in the 1880 federal census. Author Fawn Weaver launched the Nearest Green Foundation to commemorate Green. It is responsible for a new museum, memorial park, and book about his life. In addition, the Foundation has established college scholarships for his descendants."}, {"context": " In August 2017, the Brown-Forman Corporation, which owns the Jack Daniel's Distillery and brand, officially recognized Green as their first head stiller (now called a master distiller), adding him to their website. In October 2017, they added his legacy to their tours. July 2017, Uncle Nearest, Inc. created a bottle of whiskey honoring the legacy of Nearest Green and debuted \"Uncle Nearest 1856 Premium Whiskey.\" \"Uncle Nearest 1856 Premium Whiskey\" was created by working with two Tennessee distilleries, but not Jack Daniel's Distillery.  In September 2017, The Nearest Green Foundation, announced the inaugural class of descendants receiving full scholarships to college and grad school to continue their ancestor's legacy of excellence. The Foundation is funded by the sales of Uncle Nearest Premium Whiskey and the sales of Jack Daniel's official biography, \"Jack Daniel's Legacy\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathan (band)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan are a Canadian alternative country band based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The band released four albums and won several awards, including a 2008 Juno Award. Nathan was formed in 2001. Band members were singer/songwriter Keri McTighe (later Keri Latimer) and bassist Devin Latimer, along with Shelley Marshal and Damon Mitchell. After their debut independent album \"Stranger\" (Released 2001) won a Prairie Music Award for Outstanding Independent Album, the band signed to Nettwerk Records. In 2004 they released their second album, \"Jimson Weed\", which won two Western Canada Music Awards, two Canadian Folk Music Awards and was nominated for the Award for Roots & Traditional Album of the Year at the 2005 Juno Awards.  In 2007, they released their third album, \"Key Principles\", which won the award for Outstanding Roots album at the Western Canadian Music Awards and for Roots and Traditional Album of the Year (group) at the 2008 Juno Awards. Keri Latimer has also written and performed as a solo artist, including contributions to the 2008 film soundtrack \"Frozen River\" and the 2010 Great Canadian Song Quest. In 2015 She and husband Devin Latimer have formed the band Leaf Rapids."}]}, {"title": "Nathan (footballer, born 1996)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Allan de Souza (born 13 March 1996), simply known as Nathan, is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Atl\u00e9tico Mineiro on loan from Chelsea. Mainly an attacking midfielder, he can also play as a left winger or as a second striker. Born in Blumenau, Santa Catarina, Nathan joined Atl\u00e9tico Paranaense's prolific youth setup in 2009, at the age of 13. He was promoted to the main squad in 2014, initially appearing with the under-23 team in Campeonato Paranaense. His debut came on 29 January in the first stage of the Copa Libertadores away at Sporting Cristal, playing ten minutes in place of Marcelo Cirino in a 1\u20132 loss. A week later in the second leg, he came on as a substitute and had his attempt saved in the penalty shootout, although his team advanced nonetheless."}, {"context": " Nathan made his S\u00e9rie A debut on 22 May, coming on as a second-half substitute for Paulinho Dias in a 1\u20131 away draw against Corinthians. In October, after rejecting a contract renewal, the club and the player went to court, with him being demoted back to the under-23s. On 1 July 2015, Nathan joined Chelsea for an undisclosed fee rumoured to be in the region of \u00a34.5 million, having initially confirming he had signed in May 2015. Nine days after signing for Chelsea, it was announced that Nathan was join to Dutch side Vitesse Arnhem on loan, along with Isaiah Brown and Lewis Baker. He made his debut on 6 August in a UEFA Europa League third qualifying round second leg against Southampton at the GelreDome, replacing Baker for the final 21 minutes of a 0\u20132 home defeat for a 0\u20135 aggregate elimination. He made his Eredivisie debut three days later in a 1\u20131 draw against Willem II, replacing Brown with 25 minutes to spare. On 14 August he scored his first goal, again as a substitute, concluding a 3\u20130 home win over Roda JC. On 4 October, Nathan scored his second goal for the club in a 5\u20130 victory over FC Groningen."}, {"context": " On 9 June 2016, Nathan's loan at Vitesse was extended for the 2016/17 campaign. On the opening day of 2016/17 season, Nathan scored a brace against Willem II in a 4\u20131 win. He played as Vitesse won the final of the KNVB Beker 2-0 against AZ Alkmaar on 30 April, 2017 to lead the club, 3-time runners up, to the title for the first time in its 125-year history. On 31 August 2017, Nathan joined Ligue 1 side Amiens on a season-long loan. On 17 September 2017, he made his debut during Amiens' 2\u20130 away defeat against Marseille, replacing Bongani Zungu in the 81st minute. Nathan went onto feature twice more in the Coupe de la Ligue, before terminating his loan spell in January and returning to Chelsea."}, {"context": " Following his return from Amiens, Nathan opted to join Portuguese side Belenenses on loan for the remainder of the campaign in January 2018. On 24 July 2018, Nathan agreed a deal to return to his native country, Brazil to join Atl\u00e9tico Mineiro on a season-long loan. Nathan has represented Brazil in both under-17 and under-20 levels. He made his debut with the under-17s during the 2013 FIFA U-17 World Cup, scoring five goals, including braces in the 6\u20131 group stage wins against Slovakia and hosts United Arab Emirates. He scored their equaliser in the 1\u20131 draw against holders Mexico in the quarter-finals and netted in the subsequent penalty shootout, but Mexico won 11\u201310. Nathan was voted as the second best player of the tournament, winning the Silver Ball."}, {"context": " He was also included in Alexandre Gallo's 23-man squad for the 2015 South American Youth Championship held in Uruguay. Nathan appeared in all matches during the competition, scoring his first goal on 4 February, netting the first in a 5\u20130 routing over Peru. Tim Vickery, a reporter on South American football, called Nathan \"a playmaker who can thread a little pass\". He said that although he performed well as an under-17 international, his performances at under-20 were below standard, concluding that \"it\u2019s difficult to see what he has done in the last season to justify interest from Chelsea.\"  Vitesse"}]}, {"title": "Nathan (given name)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan is a masculine given name. It is derived from the Hebrew verb \u05e0\u05ea\u05df meaning \"gave\" (standard Hebrew Natan, Yiddish Nussen or Nosson, Tiberian Hebrew N\u0101\u1e6f\u0101n). The meaning of the name in Jewish culture could be rendered \"he has given\" or \"he will give\". The related name Elnathan could be rendered \"Gift of El\" (Hebrew God). Four different people named Elnathan are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible: one at , and three in . Similar ancient names are Nathaniel, with the same meaning as Elnathan, and Jonathan which signifies \"YHWH has given\". Nathan can also be used as a nickname for Nathaniel.  Familiar forms of Nathan used in English include Nat and Nate."}]}, {"title": "Nathan (prophet)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan ( \"N\u0101\u1e6fan\"; fl. c. 1000 BC) is a person in the Hebrew Bible. His actions are described in the Books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles (especially , ). According to 2 Samuel, he was a court prophet who lived in the time of King David. He announced to David the covenant God was making with him (, a passage known as \"Nathan's Oracle\"), contrasting David's proposal to build a house (i.e. a building) for the Ark of the Covenant with God's plan to build a house (i.e. a dynasty) for David. Later, he came to David to reprimand him for committing adultery with Bathsheba while she was the wife of Uriah the Hittite, whose death the King had also arranged to hide his previous transgression ()."}, {"context": " According to Chronicles, Nathan wrote histories of the reigns of both David () and Solomon (), and was involved in the music of the temple (see ). In it is Nathan who tells the dying David of the plot of Adonijah to become king, resulting in Solomon being proclaimed king instead. Nathan presides at the anointing of King Solomon, and his name appears in Handel's coronation anthem \"Zadok the Priest\". The feast day of Nathan the Prophet is on 24 October. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is commemorated as a saint on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (i.e., the Sunday before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord)."}]}, {"title": "Nathan (son of David)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan () was the third of four sons born to King David and Bathsheba in Jerusalem. He was a younger brother of Shammuah (sometimes referred to as Shammua or Shimea), Shobab, and an older brother of Solomon. Although Nathan is the third son raised by David and Bathsheba, he is the fourth born to Bathsheba. The first died before he could be named. [For an alternative view of this, see under 'Other Sons of David' below.] Nathan was the first child of Bathsheba that she was given the right to name. Her first child died as an infant before being given a name, and Shammuah and Shobab were given names by David and Nathan the prophet. It is thought that she chose the name Nathan in honour of Nathan the prophet, her counselor."}, {"context": " Nathan is first mentioned to be the son of David in 2 Samuel 5:14, & 1 Chronicles 3:5 & 14:4. Throughout the Hebrew Bible Nathan is referred to when listing the sons of David. First in 2 Samuel 5:14, \"And these be the names of those that were born to him in Jerusalem; Shammuah, and Shobab, and Nathan, and Solomon,\" In 1 Chronicles 3:5 \"And these were born to him in Jerusalem; Shimea, and Shobab, and Nathan, and Solomon, four, of Bathshua the daughter of Ammiel:\" The last specific mention of Nathan appears in 1 Chronicles 14:4"}, {"context": " \"Now these are the names of his children which he had in Jerusalem; Shammua, and Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon,\" There are also instances in the Hebrew Bible where the name Nathan is mentioned, but it is unknown whether it is referring to Nathan the prophet or Nathan the son of David. One instance of this appears in the first book of the Book of Kings. In 1 Kings 4:5 it states \"Azariah son of Nathan\u2014in charge of the district governors;\" when listing the chief officials of Israel under the reign of Solomon. The passage does not specify if it is the son of Nathan the prophet or Nathan the son of David."}, {"context": " In the New Testament, the genealogy of Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke traces Jesus' lineage back to King David through the line of Nathan, although the Gospel of Matthew traces it through Solomon. Specifically, in Luke 3:31 the genealogy of Jesus according to Luke, Jesus' lineage connects to Nathan through the biblical figure Heli, the son of Matthat. Meanwhile, the Gospel of Matthew makes no mention of Nathan. Rather, in Matthew 1:16 Jesus' lineage is connected to Jacob which eventually relates Jesus to Solomon rather than Nathan."}, {"context": " One conventional explanation for these differences, from as early as John of Damascus, is that Nathan is the ancestor of the Virgin Mary, while Solomon is the ancestor of Mary's husband Joseph. Another explanation for these differences is offered by St. John Damascene who says the following. \"One ought also to observe this, that the law was that when a man died without seed, this man's brother should take to wife the wife of the dead man and raise up seed to his brother.\" From this he proposes it is possible that \"on the death of Mathan, Melchi, of the tribe of Nathan, the son of Levi and brother of Panther, married the wife of Mathan, Jacob's mother, of whom he begat Heli. Therefore Jacob and Heli became brothers on tile mother's side, Jacob being of the tribe of Solomon and Heli of the tribe of Nathan. Then Heli of the tribe of Nathan died without any children, and Jacob his brother, of the tribe of Solomon, took his wife and raised up seed to his brother and begat Joseph. Joseph, therefore, is by nature the son of Jacob, of the line of Solomon, but by law he is the son of Heli of the line of Nathan.\""}, {"context": " One other explanation frequently proposed by modern scholars is that biblical genealogy is often based on theology rather than factual history. For example, the title \"Son of God\" is used frequently. However, this title would not have been used in the earliest Gospel writings. This explains for the differences in genealogies, as Matthew and Luke wrote for different audiences. Nathan is a son born to David and Bathsheba. The first book of the Books of Chronicles has a passage that states the sons of David born to him in Hebron, before recounting their sons and then nine more sons and one daughter of David who were also born to him in Jerusalem."}, {"context": " 1 Chronicles 3:1-4 states \" These were the sons of David born to him in Hebron: The firstborn was Amnon the son of Ahinoam of Jezreel; the second, Daniel the son of Abigail of Carmel; the third, Absalom the son of Maakah daughter of Talmai king of Geshur; the fourth, Adonijah the son of Haggith; the fifth, Shephatiah the son of Abital; and the sixth, Ithream, by his wife Eglah. These six were born to David in Hebron, where he reigned seven years and six months.\" It then lists 4 sons of David and Bathsheba. However we know that their first son died. In 2 Samuel 11 this son is never named. It is therefore possible that he was called Shimea (or Shammua & ) but equally possible, more likely even, that this is a surviving son, although the Bible does not mention him again. We also know from that Solomon was their second son. Assuming that Solomon is mentioned last as the most important, if the others are listed in order this would make Nathan the fourth or fifth son born by Bathsheba (= Bathshua) and therefore tenth or eleventh of David's sons.  1 Chronicles 6-9 recounts the others born in Jerusalem. \"There were also Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama, Eliada and Eliphelet\u2014nine in all. All these were the sons of David, besides his sons by his concubines. And Tamar was their sister.\" This means Nathan is one of his nineteen (or twenty) legitimate sons."}]}, {"title": "Nathan (surname)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan is a surname. It is derived from the Hebrew verb \u05e0\u05ea\u05df meaning \"gave\" (standard Hebrew Natan, Yiddish Nussen or Nosson, Tiberian Hebrew N\u0101\u1e6f\u0101n). The meaning of the name in Jewish culture could be rendered \"he has given\" or \"he will give\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathan A. Farwell", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Allen Farwell (February 24, 1812December 9, 1893) was a politician, businessman and United States Senator from Maine. Born in Unity, Maine, he attended the common schools, and then taught school 1832\u201333. He moved to East Thomaston, Maine, in 1834 and engaged in the manufacture of lime and in shipbuilding. Farwell subsequently became a master mariner and trader. He then studied law and moved to Rockland, Maine, where he founded the Rockland Marine Insurance Co., and served as president, as well as practicing law in that city. He traveled in Europe from 1845 until 1847."}, {"context": " He was a member of the Maine State Senate from 1853 to 1854 and again from 1861 to 1862, serving the last year as presiding officer. He was a member of the Maine House of Representatives in 1860 and again from 1863 to 1864. He was a delegate to the Baltimore Republican National Convention in 1864, and in that year was appointed to the U.S. Senate as a Republican for the unexpired term of William Pitt Fessenden. He served in that body from October 27, 1864, to March 3, 1865, but was not a candidate for reelection in 1865. At that time he resumed his activities in the insurance business. He was delegate to the National Union Convention in Philadelphia in 1866.  Farwell died in Rockland, Maine, and is buried in Achorn Cemetery. He was the cousin of Owen Lovejoy and Elijah P. Lovejoy. Retrieved on 2009-5-13"}]}, {"title": "Nathan A. Scott Jr.", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan A. Scott Jr. (24 April 1925 \u2013 December 2006) was an American scholar who helped establish the modern field of theology and literature and who helped found the well-known Ph.D. program in that field at the University of Chicago. Scott also published seventeen books, in addition to publishing articles and reviews and editing editions. He has likewise been the subject of numerous articles and books. Scott's innovation in literary criticism was to reject the New Critics' idea that poems should be studied as autonomous objects and to remind scholars that authors' personal beliefs are crucial for understanding their texts; in this way, he also returned criticism to a study of the way literature represents the outside world."}, {"context": " Scott earned his B.A. at the University of Michigan in 1944, his B.D. at Union Theological Seminary in 1946, and his Ph.D at Columbia University in 1949, having studied under Lionel Trilling, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Jacques Barzun. He served as dean of the chapel at Virginia Union University and was an ordained priest in the Episcopal Church. He taught at Howard University in Washington, D.C. He taught at Chicago from 1955 to 1977, when he moved to University of Virginia. He also served as a President of the American Academy of Religion."}]}, {"title": "Nathan A. Woodworth House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan A. Woodworth House is a historic house at 28 Channing Street in New London, Connecticut. Built in 1890, it is a high quality example of transitional Queen Anne and Shingle style architecture. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 1, 1982, and is part of the Post Hill Historic District. The Nathan A. Woodworth House is located in a residential area west of downtown New London, overlooking Williams Park on the west side of Channing Street at Granite Street. It is a 2-1/2 story wood frame structure, with asymmetrical massing and a busy roof line characteristic of the Queen Anne style. It has a number of different types of projections and roof gables, decorative chimney caps, and a front porch with turned posts and balustrade. The interior features finely crafted woodwork, fireplaces with decorative tile surrounds, and a main staircase newel post with an integrated gas light fixture."}, {"context": " The house was built in 1890 for Nathan Woodworth, who was in the paper milling business in nearby Waterford; its design appears to be an adaptation from an architectural pattern book. The land on which it was built was purchased by Woodworth's father in 1865, and sold to his (Nathan's) wife in 1890. Construction of this house contributed to the reputation of the Williams Park area as a desirable upper-class residential enclave. Its builders, the Bishop Brothers, were one of the best-known construction firms in the city at the time."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Abbey", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathanael \"Nathan\" Abbey (born 11 July 1978) is an English journeyman former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He is currently assistant manager of Southern League Division One Central club Bedford Town. Abbey was born in Islington, London, and began his football career as a trainee with Luton Town, turning professional in August 1995. His first team debut came on 26 August 1997 in the League Cup first round second leg tie at home to Colchester United, a 1\u20131 draw taking the Hatters into the second round. Later that season he had a spell on loan to Football Conference side Woking. He had to wait until January 1999 for this next first team appearance for Luton, playing in the 3\u20130 defeat at home to Walsall in the Football League Trophy. His league debut came the following month, on 6 February, playing in the 2\u20131 win away to Burnley."}, {"context": " He began the 1999\u20132000 season as Luton's first choice goalkeeper, previous first choice Kelvin Davis having been sold to Wimbledon to aid Luton's financial problems, and remained a regular throughout the season. In the summer of 2000, Luton manager Ricky Hill signed Mark Ovendale and chose him to start the season in place of Abbey. However, Abbey soon regained his place in the side, though spent most of the season in and out of the side as first Lil Fuccillo and then Joe Kinnear took over as Luton manager."}, {"context": " With Luton relegated to the bottom flight of the Football League, Abbey was released by Luton and joined Chesterfield in August 2001. He was an ever-present the following season and won the Chesterfield Player of the Year Award, but left after failing to agree a new contract. He joined Northampton Town in August 2002 and signed a contract extension until the end of the season, but struggled to establish himself and was released at the end of the season having played only eight games. He returned to Luton on trial, but signed for Conference side Stevenage Borough in July 2003. He played six Conference games before returning to Luton Town in October 2003. He was released by Luton manager Mike Newell the following month, joining Macclesfield Town, where he again failed to make the first team and was released, joining non-league Hayes in December 2003. Abbey had similar experiences on moving to Ipswich Town later the same month and Burnley in January 2004."}, {"context": " In July 2004, Abbey signed for Boston United, playing 61 league games over the next season and a half. He had a spell on loan with Leyton Orient in December 2005 and moved to Bristol City on a free transfer in February 2006 after being released by Boston at the end of January. He made just one appearance for City, as a substitute for Adriano Basso in the 1\u20130 defeat away to Southend United on 6 May 2005, before being released at the end of the season. He signed for Torquay United in July 2006 and was soon installed as first choice goalkeeper by Torquay manager Ian Atkins. Despite being ever-present in the Torquay goal from the start of the 2006\u201307 season, Abbey was only offered a one-month extension to his existing six-month contract and left the club at the end of his contract on 28 December 2006. His last game for Torquay came on 26 December 2006 at home to Milton Keynes Dons, where Torquay manager Lubos Kubik decided to substitute him for debutant keeper Martin Horsell with seven minutes of the game remaining and Torquay 2\u20130 down."}, {"context": " Abbey signed for Brentford on 29 December 2006 on an emergency loan as regular goalkeepers Stuart Nelson and Clark Masters were injured. He signed a permanent contract on 26 January 2007. He made sixteen appearances for the Bees before being released on 16 May 2007. He signed for Milton Keynes Dons shortly before the start of the 2007\u201308 season. He made his debut for MK Dons coming on as a sub against Cheltenham Town when regular keeper Willy Gueret was sent off. After two seasons he was released by MK Dons."}, {"context": " He joined Rushden & Diamonds making eleven appearances for the club. In January 2010 he joined Kettering Town on a non-contract basis. It was announced on 16 November 2010 that Abbey had been sacked from Kettering Town due to gross misconduct, having made 29 appearances for the club. He joined his brother Zema Abbey as player/assistant manager at Arlesey Town. In November 2013, Abbey moved with his brother to St Neots Town. Abbey left the club at the same time as his brother a couple of months into the 2014-15 season, with Gary King assuming sole control of the first team. Abbey soon joined Dunstable Town in late 2014. In February 2015, he returned to Arlesey Town as player-joint manager alongside his brother. The two left the club in May 2018.  His brother, Zema, was also a professional footballer."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Abbott", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Abbott (1854 \u2013 January 4, 1941) was an American lawyer and law teacher of distinction. Abbott was born in Norridgewock, Maine, the son of Abiel Abbott. He was educated at Yale College, graduating in 1877, and studied law in Boston University. After some years of practice in the city of Boston, he was invited to become Tappan Professor of Law in the University of Michigan, and from that time on he devoted himself exclusively to legal scholarship and teaching. After a year at the University of Michigan, Abbott was appointed professor of law in Northwestern University and two years later, in 1895, he became professor of law and dean of Stanford Law School. He held that position until 1907, after which time he was a member of the law faculty of Columbia University, New York City. He was a legal scholar of wide reputation and a recognized authority on the English and American Law of Real Property."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ablett", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ablett (born 13 December 1985) is a former Australian rules footballer who played for Gold Coast and Geelong in the Australian Football League (AFL). A key forward, tall and weighing , Nathan is the youngest son of Gary Ablett Sr and the younger brother of Gary Ablett Jr. Although a standout junior footballer, Ablett chose not to play in the TAC Cup to avoid the media attention which accompanied the preceding careers of his father and brother. After spending a year playing in country leagues, Ablett agreed to sign for Geelong (his former club) under the league's father-son rule and was selected with the 49th overall pick in the 2004 AFL Draft. Ablett made his AFL debut in 2005, and was part of the Premiership side in 2007. However, he announced his retirement from professional football at the conclusion of the 2007 season, citing a lack in desire to continue playing at the top level."}, {"context": " Though a gifted footballer, Ablett avoided media attention surrounding his junior career by choosing not to play in the TAC Cup. He eventually decided to pursue a career in AFL football, though wary of the pressures placed on him as the son of a former league superstar and brother of a rising talent. Regarded as a shy personality both on and off the field, Ablett rarely participated in media interviews. Ablett debuted midway through the 2005 AFL season after beginning his professional football career with the Geelong reserves team in the VFL. Nathan showed improvement as a player at the end of the 2006 season in the VFL team which contested the Grand Final. By 2007, Ablett cemented his position in the senior squad at full forward, and helped the Cats capture the 2007 AFL Premiership, booting three goals in the record breaking Grand Final win."}, {"context": " On 30 November 2007, Ablett announced he was considering retirement from the game at the age of only 21, citing a lack of continuing passion for the game. This was not without precedent, as Ablett walked away from his TAC Cup team in 2003, but was eventually convinced to return to top level competition. Having been given until the start of 2008 to make a decision, Ablett decided on 7 January 2008 to walk away from AFL for at least one year, but didn't rule out a possible return at some stage. In May 2008, media outlets reported Geelong coach Mark Thompson as saying \"I've spoken to him (Nathan Ablett) a few times and it's probably a bit late for this year, for him to play AFL, but that's not the real point, the point is he's missing footy and he is thinking about a return.\" Nathan re-commenced training with Geelong on 9 July 2008. Although he was expected to play in Geelong's VFL side in the later part of the 2008 season, an ankle injury, sustained from playing basketball, sidelined him for the remainder of the year. It was announced on 2 September 2008 that Nathan would not be pursuing an AFL career in 2009, instead choosing to become a plumber."}, {"context": " However, he surprised many when he subsequently signed with the Broadbeach Cats to play in the AFL Queensland State League. Ablett returned to AFL football in 2011, playing for the Gold Coast Suns. His Suns debut came in Round 22 against Adelaide, 3 years and 325 days since his previous AFL appearance. On 5 September 2011 Gold Coast announced they had delisted Ablett from their playing list. He had played only two games for the Suns and kicked one goal. On 15 January 2012 it was reported that Ablett had signed with VFL side Werribee Tigers for the 2012 season.  ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2005 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2006 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center;\" | 2007 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2011 ! colspan=3| Career ! 34 ! 47 ! 24 ! 178 ! 118 ! 296 ! 131 ! 41 ! 1.4 ! 0.7 ! 5.2 ! 3.5 ! 8.7 ! 3.9 ! 1.2"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Abraham Cooper", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Abraham Cooper (April 20, 1802 \u2013 1879) was a United States Army General. He was born on April 20, 1802, to Abraham Cooper (1762\u20131818) and Anna Wills (1774\u20131856). He had a sister Beulah Ann Cooper (1800\u20131885) who married Henry Seward. When he was 16 years old his father died and he inherited the family land. It included farming lands, an iron mine (operated by Marsh, Craig & Evans) and a grist-mill. He married Mary Henrietta Leddel. He died in 1879."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Abshire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Abshire (June 27, 1913 near Gueydan, Louisiana \u2013 May 13, 1981 in Basile, Louisiana) was an American Cajun accordion player who, along with Iry LeJeune, was responsible for the renaissance of the accordion in Cajun music in the 1940s. Learning the accordion at age six, he was influenced by his father, mother, and uncle all playing the accordion. Abshire first performed on the accordion in public at age eight. He continued playing at dance halls and parties through his teenage years. In the 1930s, he performed with and learned from fiddler Lionel Leleux and accordionist Am\u00e9d\u00e9 Ardoin. In 1935, he recorded six songs with the Rayne-Bo Ramblers, a group led by guitarist and singer Leroy \"Happy Fats\" Leblanc."}, {"context": " Abshire served in the U.S. army during World War II. After the war, he settled in Basile, Louisiana, where he played regularly at the Avalon Club. He released his best-known record, \"Pine Grove Blues\", in 1949, a song based on Amede Breaux's \"Le Blues de Petit Chien\", as well as several recordings on Swallow Records and Arhoolie Records in the 1960s. He appeared with Dewey Balfa and The Balfa Brothers at the Newport Folk Festival in 1967. Along with Balfa, Abshire devoted much of his time in the 1960s and 70s to promoting Cajun music through appearances at festivals, colleges, and schools throughout the United States.  Abshire was featured in Les Blank's 1971 documentary \"Spend It All\" and the 1975 PBS documentary, \"The Good Times Are Killing Me\". He was also included in the documentary film, \"Les Blues de Balfa,\" along with Balfa. He died in Basile, Louisiana in 1981 after living most his life there as the overseer of the town dump. Compilations"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ackerman", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan W. Ackerman (November 22, 1908, Bessarabia, Russian Empire \u2013 June 12, 1971, New York) was an American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and one of the most important pioneers of the field of family therapy. He also was an expert in marriage counselling. Ackerman obtained his medical degree from Columbia University in 1933. He assumed the post of chief psychiatrist at the \"Menninger Child Guidance Clinic\" (see Menninger Foundation) in 1937. In 1955, he contributed to the founding of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis. In 1957 he founded the \"Family Mental Health Clinic\" in New York, and the \"Family Institute\" in 1960, which was later renamed the Ackerman Institute after his death in New York in 1971. In 1961 he co-founded the first ever family therapy journal \"Family Process\" with Donald deAvila Jackson and Jay Haley."}, {"context": " Ackerman attended a public school in New York City. In 1929 he was awarded a B.A. from Columbia University, and in 1933 earned his M.D. from the same university. After a short spell (1933\u201334) as an intern at the Montefiore Hospital in New York, he interned at the Menninger Clinic and Sanitorium in Topeka, Kansas. He joined their psychiatric staff in 1935. Ackerman greatly influenced and concentrated on the study on psychosexual stages on character formation and was one of the first clinicians to attempt to integrate insights from individual psychotherapy with the then newer ideas from systems theory. He is best known for his contribution to the development of the psychodynamic approach to family therapy. With regards to family therapy, Ackerman incorporated the idea of \"the family being a social and emotional unit.\" His main focuses, with respect to family therapy, were intergenerational ties and conflicts, the influence of long-term social change impacting the family, the developmental stages of the family as a single unit, the importance of emotion within the family structure, and equal amounts of authority among parents."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adadi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Adadi (, 1740-1818) was a Sephardi Hakham, Torah scholar, and kabbalist in the Jewish community of Tripoli, Libya. He was one of the leaders of the Tripoli Jewish community for some 50 years. Nathan Adadi was born in Palestine. Little is known about his early life. He served as a \"shadar\" and was dispatched to the Jewish community in Livorno, Italy, to collect funds for the Jews of Palestine. Afterwards he traveled to Tripoli, where he became a prominent student of Mas'ud Hai Rakkah, one of the leading rabbis of Libyan Jewry in the 18th century. Rakka\u1e25 chose Adadi as a son-in-law, and Adadi and his wife had one son, Mas'ud Hai Adadi."}, {"context": " Together with Hakhamim Shalom Plus and Moshe Lachmish, Adadi led the Tripoli Jewish community after Rakka\u1e25's death in 1768. Among Adadi's students was Rabbi Yehuda Lavie, a leading rabbi and kabbalist in Tripoli in the 19th century. In 1802 Adadi was appointed to the Tripoli \"beit din\" (rabbinical court), but served only for a few days. According to his grandson, Abraham Hayyim Adadi, he \"resigned voluntarily because he was a zealot, favoring no man, however rich or prominent\". Adadi's son and daughter-in-law died at a young age, leaving one young son, Abraham Hayyim Adadi (1801-1874). Adadi took the boy into his care and was his primary Torah teacher."}, {"context": " In 1818, Adadi decided to return to Palestine, and his 18-year-old grandson accompanied him. Later that same year, Adadi died in Safed. Adadi authored numerous works on the \"Shulchan Aruch\", \"Yoreh De'ah\", and \"Mishnah\", including the \"sefarim\" \"Me'orei Natan\" and \"Chok Natan\", but his writings were not published and were subsequently lost. Adadi began preparing for publication the second volume of his father-in-law's major work, \"Ma'aseh Rokea\u1e25\", a commentary on Maimonides' \"Mishneh Torah\", from handwritten manuscripts, but did not complete the task. His grandson, Abraham Hayyim Adadi, eventually completed the volume and published it in Livorno in 1862."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adams", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Mark Adams (born 6 October 1991 in Lincoln, England) is a professional footballer who plays for Lincoln United. He played in the Football League for Lincoln City. Adams joined the Centre of Excellence at Lincoln City at under-8 level and progressed through the centre to agree a two-year Apprenticeship for Sporting Excellence (ASE) scholarship with the club in May 2008. Adams was drafted into The Imps squad during the 2008\u20132009 season. He made 2 appearances in total in his first season at Sincil Bank. His debut came on 18 April 2009 in the 1\u20130 defeat home against Exeter City. At the end of his scholarship, Adams alongside fellow scholars Kern Miller and Andy Hutchinson agreed a six-month professional contract with the club. In November 2010 he joined Stamford on a month's loan, debuting in the club's 1\u20130 defeat at Rushall Olympic on 6 November 2011."}, {"context": " On 15 December 2010 his contract with the Imps was terminated by mutual consent and he joined Stamford on a permanent basis. Having secured a new job, he elected to join a club closer to home and linked up with Lincoln Moorlands Railway, debuting in the club's Northern Counties East League 4\u20133 defeat at home to Scarborough Athletic on 16 February 2011. He opened his goalscoring account for the club with a hat-trick in the following game, an 8\u20132 away victory over Armthorpe Welfare on 19 February 2011, and went on to net 11 league goals for the club in the 2010\u20132011 season.  In February 2015, after a spell away from the game due to work commitments, he joined Spalding United."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adams (programmer)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Dinnerbone\" Adams is a British video game developer, who has been working on \"Minecraft\" since March 2012. Adams was born in Shrewsbury, England on 23 July 1991. He says that he learned programming at age 10 by creating MSN bots. He is married to Aleksandra \"MissMarzenia\" Zajac, the project manager at Mojang. They have one son, who was born on 2 October 2016. Adams is red-green colourblind. After finishing secondary school, he was rejected from college, so found a job with a small web development company. He was then hired by Curse, where he worked on the \"Minecraft\" server modification \"CraftBukkit\". Mojang then took full control of and hired the CraftBukkit team to work on a modding API, which allowed mod developers easier access to the \"Minecraft\" game files. He was hired on 28 February 2012 and started work on 27 March. He quit work on \"Minecraft\" in October 2015 to work on a new \"Minecraft\" application launcher, and joined back in February 2017."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adcock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Tennyson Adcock (born 22 April 1978) is a Lawyer and former professional cricketer who played for the South Australia cricket team, who he captained for part of the 2007\u201308 season before being replaced with Graham Manou and dropped from South Australia's squad altogether. Adcock was educated at St Peter's College, Adelaide where he completed matriculation in 1995. He was invited back to serve as School Captain in 1996. He commenced a Commerce/Law degree in 1997 at the University of Adelaide, however his burgeoning first-class cricket career meant it took him a little longer than average to complete the two programs. He graduated from the Law School in 2004."}, {"context": " He was admitted to practice law in 2004. He commenced working for Hunt & Hunt Lawyers, whilst captaining the Adelaide University first grade side and remaining a member of the Redbacks State squad. Adcock placed his legal career on hold when on 28 August 2007, he was named as captain of the South Australian cricket team replacing Darren Lehmann who had stepped down. The previous season Adcock only played only four first-class matches however he topped SA's first-class averages with 324 runs at 46.  Midway through the 2007/08 season, he suffered a form slump averaging less than 20 and was replaced as captain by Graham Manou. Following the end of the 2007/08 season, Adcock was not offered a new contract. In 2009 he joined Law firm Fenwick Elliott Grace with his principal area of practice being Construction and Engineering. A commercial lawyer, He later became a partner at Lynch Meyer. He was appointed as a Board Member of the South Australian Cricket Association in May 2014."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adler", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Adler (1741\u20131800) was a German kabbalist born in Frankfurt, December 16, 1741. As a precocious child he won the admiration of Chaim Joseph David Azulai (Chida), who, in 1752, came to Frankfurt to solicit contributions for the poor of the Jewish communities in Eretz Yisrael. Adler attended the rabbinical school of Jacob Joshua, author of \"Pene Yehoshua\", who was at that time rabbi at Frankfurt, but his principal teacher was David Tevele Schiff, afterward chief rabbi of the United Kingdom. In 1761 he established a yeshivah himself, in which several prominent rabbis received their early teachings, notable among whom were Abraham Auerbach, Abraham Bing, rabbi in W\u00fcrzburg, Sekl Loeb Wormser, and especially Moses Sofer (Schreiber), rabbi in Presburg."}, {"context": " Nathan Adler devoted himself to the study of the Kabbala, and adopted the liturgical system of Isaac Luria, assembling about himself a select community of kabbalistic adepts. He was one of the first Ashkenazim to adopt the Sephardi pronunciation of Hebrew, and gave hospitality to a Sephardi scholar for several months to ensure that he learnt that pronunciation accurately. He prayed according to the Halebi ritual, pronounced the priestly blessing every day, and in other ways approached the school of the Hasidim, who had at that time provoked the strongest censures on the part of the Talmudists of the old school. His followers claimed that he had performed miracles (Moses Sofer, \"\u1e24atam Sofer, Ora\u1e25 \u1e24ayyim,\" 197), and turned visionaries themselves, frightening many persons with predictions of misfortunes which would befall them. Finally, the rabbis and congregational leaders intervened in 1779 and prohibited, under penalty of excommunication, the assemblies in Nathan Adler's house."}, {"context": " Rabbi Nathan, however, paid no attention to these orders. He even excommunicated a man who had disregarded his orders, although this was contrary to the laws of the congregation. His doors remained open day and night, and he declared all his possessions to be common property, that thus he might prevent the punishment of those who might carry away by mistake anything with them. Moreover, he commanded Moses Sofer, who had quarreled with his father, never to speak to his parent again. When the same disciple reported to him that he had gone through the whole Talmud, he advised him to celebrate that event by a fast of three days."}, {"context": " In spite of the continued conflict with the congregational authorities, the fame of Rabbi Nathan's piety and scholarship grew, and in 1782 he was elected rabbi of Boskowitz in Moravia. But his excessive and mystical piety having made enemies for him, he was forced to leave his congregation, and in 1785 returned to Frankfurt. As he still persisted in his former ways, the threat of excommunication was renewed in 1789, which act was not repealed until shortly before his death at Frankfurt on September 17, 1800. His wife, Rachel, daughter of Feist Cohen of Giessen, survived him. He left no children, though Nathan Marcus Adler, chief rabbi of London, was named after him.  His mysticism seems to have been the cause of his repugnance to literary publications. The kabbalists claimed that real esoteric theology should never be published, but should only be orally transmitted to worthy disciples. In his copy of the Mishnah he wrote brief marginal notes, mostly cross-references. Some of them were collected and explained ingeniously by B. H. Auerbach under the title \"Mishnat Rabbi Natan\". One responsum is found among those of Moses Sofer on \"Yoreh De'ah,\" 261."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adler (psychologist)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Adler (1911\u20131994) was an American psychoanalyst, a lecturer in Criminology and Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, and professor of clinical psychology at the California School of Professional Psychology at Berkeley/Alameda. Between 1965 and 1970 he conducted extensive clinical studies of drug users in the San Francisco Bay area. He authored the book \"The Underground Stream: New Lifestyles and the Antinomian Personality\". In his youth, he wrote for several prominent leftist journals in New York."}, {"context": " Nathan Adler was born in New York City, the second of five children. His siblings were Martha, Irving, Bob, and Ray. His parents emigrated to the United States from Poland. His father Marcus arrived in 1906 and his mother Celia arrived five years later along with his elder sister, Martha. After moving to San Francisco, he worked for the Jewish Personal Service Committee, providing counseling for inmates at San Quentin and Alcatraz prisons. He began his studies in psychology in San Francisco under the mentorship of Siegfried Bernfeld. In 1943 he married Elizabeth Haverstock Adler (1912 - 2006), a public health educator who taught at the UC Berkeley School of Public Health."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Adrian", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ghar-jun Adrian (born December 7, 1988) is an American competitive swimmer and five-time Olympic gold medalist who formerly held the American record in the long course 50-meter freestyle event. In his Olympic debut at the 2008 Summer Olympics, Adrian swam in the heats of the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay and earned a gold medal when the United States team won in the final. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, Adrian won gold medals in both the 100-meter freestyle and the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay, and a silver medal in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay. He has won a total of thirty-two medals in major international competitions; twenty gold, seven silver, and five bronze spanning the Olympics, the World, and the Pan Pacific Championships. In the 2016 Summer Olympics, along with Michael Phelps, Caeleb Dressel, and Ryan Held, he won a gold medal in the 4x100-meter freestyle relay as well as individual bronze medals in the 50-meter and 100-meter freestyles."}, {"context": " Adrian was born in Bremerton, Washington, in 1988. He is the son of Cecilia and James Adrian. His mother is Chinese from Hong Kong and works as a nurse for the Bremerton school district; his father is a retired nuclear engineer for the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. Adrian has an older sister, Donella, who swam at Arizona State University, and an older brother, Justin, who swam at the University of Washington. Adrian started swimming at the age of five because of the influence of his siblings. He graduated in 2006 from Bremerton High School, where he swam for the school team."}, {"context": " Adrian attended at the University of California, Berkeley in fall 2006, where he majored in public health. He graduated with honors in the spring of 2012. Adrian was a five-time individual NCAA champion, winning the 50-yard freestyle in 2009 and 2011 and the 100-yard freestyle in 2009, 2010, and 2011. At the 2008 Short Course World Championships, Adrian won gold in the 100-meter freestyle and 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay and silver in the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay. In the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay, Adrian combined with Ryan Lochte, Bryan Lundquist and Doug Van Wie won gold in a world record time of 3:08.44. In his second event, the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian won gold in a time of 46.67, just ahead of Filippo Magnini who finished second with a time of 46.70. For his last event, the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay, Adrian combined with Randall Bal, Mark Gangloff and Ryan Lochte, won silver behind Russia."}, {"context": " At the 2008 United States Olympic Trials, Adrian placed fourth in the 100-meter freestyle, qualifying him to swim in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay at the Olympics. He also placed sixth in the 50-meter freestyle. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Adrian swam the first leg in the preliminary heats of the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay, splitting a time of 48.82 seconds. Cullen Jones, Ben Wildman-Tobriner and Matt Grevers completed the relay with a final time of 3:12.23, a world record. This record was broken one day later when Michael Phelps, Garrett Weber-Gale, Cullen Jones and Jason Lezak swam a time of 3:08.24, beating France and Australia in the final. By swimming in the heats, Adrian earned a gold medal even though he didn't swim in the final."}, {"context": " Adrian was training under coach Mike Bottom in the Florida Keys as part of The Race Club swimming training program World Team leading up to the 2008 Olympics. At the 2009 National Championships, Adrian placed first in the 50-meter and 100-meter freestyle events, qualifying him to swim at the 2009 World Aquatics Championships in Rome. At the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, Adrian earned gold in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay and the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay. Adrian also placed sixth in the 50-meter freestyle and tenth in the 100-meter freestyle. After Michael Phelps, Ryan Lochte and Matt Grevers completed their legs in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay, the United States had a slight deficit behind the Russian team. However, Adrian swam the anchor leg in 46.79 to overtake Danila Izotov for first place. The final time of 3:09.21 was a championship record. In the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay, Adrian contributed in the heats (with Matt Grevers, Mark Gangloff and Tyler McGill) and earned a gold medal when the U.S. team placed first in the final."}, {"context": " At the 2010 National Championships, Adrian qualified to compete at the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships by winning the 50-meter and 100-meter freestyle titles. His win in the 100-meter freestyle also guaranteed him a spot on the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle and 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay teams. At the 2010 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships, Adrian won a total of four gold medals, the best performance of his career. In his first event, the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian won the gold medal in 48.15, beating Canadian Brent Hayden and world-record holder in the 100-meter freestyle C\u00e9sar Cielo. The following day, Adrian lined up alongside Michael Phelps, Ryan Lochte and Jason Lezak to anchor the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay. With no competition, Adrian recorded a time of 47.51 and the U.S. team won the gold in a time of 3:11.74. The following day, Adrian then competed in the 50-meter freestyle and the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay. In the final of the 50-meter freestyle, Adrian shocked favorite Cielo, winning in a time of 21.55 seconds; Cielo finished second in 21.57. About an hour and a half later, Adrian competed in the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay with Aaron Peirsol, Mark Gangloff and Michael Phelps. Swimming the freestyle leg, Adrian recorded a time of 47.54, the fastest in the field and the U.S. team won the gold in a time of 3:32.48."}, {"context": " Adrian won his first medal, a bronze, in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay with Michael Phelps, Garrett Weber-Gale and Jason Lezak. Swimming the anchor leg, Adrian recorded a time of 47.40. In the final of the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian placed sixth with a time of 48.23, well off his semi-final time of 48.05. In the 50-meter freestyle final, Adrian placed fourth with a time of 21.93 seconds, just one one-hundredth (0.01) of a second ahead behind third-place finisher Alain Bernard. In his last event, the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay, Adrian teamed with Mark Gangloff, Michael Phelps, and Nick Thoman to win gold in a time of 3:32.06. Swimming the freestyle leg, Adrian had a time of 47.64."}, {"context": " At the 2011 National Championships, Adrian defended his 50-meter freestyle title with a time of 21.84 seconds. His time moved him to fourth in the world behind C\u00e9sar Cielo (21.52), Bruno Fratus (21.76), and Fr\u00e9d\u00e9rick Bousquet (21.78). He chose to sit out of the 100-meter freestyle in order to prepare for the 2012 Summer Olympics. At the 2012 U.S. Olympic Trials in Omaha, Nebraska, the qualifying meet for the 2012 Olympics, Adrian made the U.S. Olympic team for the second time by finishing first in his first event, the 100-meter freestyle. In the final of the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian posted a time of 48.10 seconds to finish ahead of Cullen Jones, who had a time of 48.46. He also placed third for the 50-meter freestyle with a time of 21.68, just missing a spot in that event."}, {"context": " At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Adrian won his first medal of the games, a silver, in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay with Michael Phelps, Cullen Jones and Ryan Lochte, with the team finishing behind France. Swimming the lead-off leg, Adrian recorded a split of 47.89 seconds, and the team finished with a final time of 3:10.38. Adrian's lead-off time was the fastest first leg in the field, and Adrian's first time breaking 48 seconds. On the fifth day of competition, Adrian won the gold medal in the 100-meter freestyle final, defeating favorite James Magnussen of Australia by one one-hundredth (0.01) of a second. In the race, Adrian set a new personal record with a time of 47.52. Going into the 100-meter freestyle final, Adrian was seeded second with a time of 47.97, which was only the second time he ever broke 48 seconds in the event. In winning the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian became the first American male to win the event since Matt Biondi did in 1988."}, {"context": " Adrian won a second gold medal as a member of the winning U.S. team in the 4\u00d7100-meter medley relay on the final day of the competition. He swam the anchor freestyle leg, with Matt Grevers swimming the backstroke leadoff leg, Brendan Hansen the breaststroke second leg, and Michael Phelps the butterfly third leg. The Americans recorded a time of 3:29:35, with the Japanese team taking the silver medal and the Australians receiving the bronze. In the race, Adrian had a split of 46.85, the fastest in the field."}, {"context": " In August 2012, a street in Adrian's hometown, Bremerton, Washington, was renamed \"Nathan Adrian Drive\" for Adrian's Olympic achievements. At the 2013 U.S. National Championships, Adrian qualified to swim at the 2013 World Aquatics Championships in Barcelona by placing first in the 50 and 100-meter freestyle with times of 21.47 and 48.10, respectively. In his first event at the World Championships, Adrian combined with Ryan Lochte, Anthony Ervin, and Jimmy Feigen in the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay, with the team finishing behind France. Swimming the lead-off leg, Adrian recorded a split of 47.95 seconds, and the team finished with a final time of 3:11.42. Adrian's lead-off time was the fastest first leg in the field."}, {"context": " Adrian advanced to the 100-meter freestyle final as the top seed by posting 47.95 in the semi-finals. In the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian won bronze in a time of 47.84, only two-hundredths of a second behind second-place finisher Jimmy Feigen. In his second individual event, the 50-meter freestyle, Adrian was just off the podium with a fourth-place finish, finishing with a time of 21.60. At the 2015 World Championships, Adrian swam in two relays and two individual events. In the 4x100 freestyle relay, the US team failed to advance to the final in the heats, so Adrian could not swim the finals of the relay. In his first individual event, the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian tied for seventh in the final, finishing in 48.31. Nonetheless, Adrian bounced back to break a six-year old American record in the 50-meter freestyle in 21.37 seconds in the semifinals. In the final, Adrian won a silver medal in the 50-meter freestyle, touching second behind Florent Manadou in 21.52. On the same night, Adrian was also part of the winning 4x100-meter mixed freestyle relay along with Ryan Lochte, Simone Manuel, and Missy Franklin. They broke the world record with a time of 3:23.05. Adrian won another gold medal in the 4x100-meter medley relay with Ryan Murphy, Kevin Cordes, and Tom Shields. He anchored in 47.41 to touch the wall at 3:29.93."}, {"context": " At the 2016 United States Olympic Trials, the U.S. qualifying meet for the Rio Olympics, Adrian qualified for his third Olympic Games by winning both the 50- and 100-meter freestyle. He finished half a second ahead of the field in the 100-meter freestyle, touching first in 47.72. In the 50-meter freestyle, Adrian redeemed his third-place finish from the 2012 Trials by finishing first in 21.51, one hundredth of a second ahead of second-place finisher Anthony Ervin. In Rio de Janeiro, Adrian won a total of four medals. He won his first medal as the anchor for the 4\u00d7100-meter freestyle relay alongside Caeleb Dressel, Michael Phelps, and Ryan Held. The Americans, with Dressel and Held as first-time Olympic competitors, finished with a time of 3:09.92, followed by France and Australia. Adrian's final leg was 46.97 seconds, the fastest of the field. In his first individual event, the 100-meter freestyle, Adrian failed to defend his Olympic title, touching third behind Kyle Chalmers and Pieter Timmers in 47.85 seconds. Adrian won another bronze medal in the 50-meter freestyle, finishing in 21.49 seconds. Another American, Anthony Ervin, won in 21.40 seconds and the defending Olympic champion Florent Manadou took second. He capped off his Olympics with another gold medal in the 4x100-meter medley relay on the final day of the competition, swimming alongside Ryan Murphy, Cody Miller, and Michael Phelps. He anchored the relay with a 46.74 split to bring home the gold in 3:27.95, a new Olympic record."}, {"context": " In May 2017, Adrian became engaged to merchandising director Hallie Ivester after six years of dating. They were married on September 15, 2018 in Rutherford, California. Adrian appeared in episode 5 of the 2009 season of the Discovery Channel series, \"MythBusters\", to assist hosts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman in testing the myth that it is possible to swim as fast in syrup as in water. His test results however, were declared invalid by Savage and Hyneman, because they determined that Adrian was so used to swimming in water, that his technique was completely disrupted when swimming in the syrup. This disruption caused his lap times when swimming in syrup to vary wildly in comparison with his extremely consistent lap times in water.  In 2014, Adrian was inducted into The Robert Chinn Foundation Asian Hall of Fame."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ake\u0301", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Benjamin Ak\u00e9 (born 18 February 1995) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays for club AFC Bournemouth and the Netherlands national team. Although he predominantly plays as a central defender, he has also been deployed as a left back. Ak\u00e9 agreed to join the Chelsea youth system from Feyenoord in 2011 at age 16. He had played at Feyenoord since age 12 after joining the club from ADO Den Haag. Ak\u00e9 made his Premier League debut on 26 December 2012 against Norwich City as a 17-year-old, replacing Juan Mata in added time at the end of a 1\u20130 win at Carrow Road. He made his first start for the club in the FA Cup on 27 February 2013 in a 2\u20130 win against Championship side Middlesbrough. He was chosen to start in a defensive midfield position for Chelsea in the second leg of their UEFA Europa League quarter-final clash with Rubin Kazan in Russia on 11 April, a match that finished in a 3\u20132 loss but resulted in a 5\u20134 aggregate victory. Ak\u00e9 was an unused substitute for Chelsea in the Europa League final against Benfica in Amsterdam on 16 May, which Chelsea won 2\u20131. He was voted Chelsea's Young Player of the Year on 16 May, and made his first Premier League start three days later in the 2\u20131 win against Everton at Stamford Bridge on the last matchday of the season."}, {"context": " On 8 August 2013, Ak\u00e9 signed a new five-year contract with Chelsea, lasting until 2018. Following his permanent promotion to the first team, on 21 October 2014, Ak\u00e9 made his UEFA Champions League debut from the substitutes' bench, coming into the match for Cesc F\u00e0bregas in the 60th minute during a 6\u20130 home win over Maribor, and provided an assist for Eden Hazard's second goal. On 25 March 2015, Ak\u00e9 was loaned to Championship club Reading for one month, making his first of five appearances against Cardiff City in a 1\u20131 draw ten days later. Although he only made one league appearance for Chelsea the entire season, as a substitute in a 3\u20130 loss at West Bromwich Albion on 18 May, manager Jos\u00e9 Mourinho said Ak\u00e9 would receive a winner's medal for his contribution to the team that season."}, {"context": " On 14 August 2015, Ak\u00e9 completed a season-long loan move to newly promoted Premier League side Watford, after having signed a new five-year contract with Chelsea. Eleven days later, he made his debut for the \"Hornets\" in a League Cup second round match against Preston North End, which ended in a 1\u20130 defeat for his side. Ak\u00e9 played his first Premier League match coming off the substitutes' bench against Newcastle United 19 September 2015, helping the \"Hornets\" hold on for a 2\u20131 win. He scored his first senior goal on 20 December, opening a 3\u20130 win over Liverpool at Vicarage Road in the fourth minute, after goalkeeper \u00c1d\u00e1m Bogd\u00e1n dropped a corner kick."}, {"context": " During his time with the \"Hornets\", manager Quique S\u00e1nchez Flores primarily deployed Ak\u00e9 as a left back. His performance and work ethics earned him the Watford's Young Player of the Season award. On 29 June 2016, Ak\u00e9 joined AFC Bournemouth on loan for the 2016\u201317 season. On 21 August, he made his Bournemouth debut in a 1\u20130 away defeat against West Ham United, replacing Jordon Ibe following teammate Harry Arter's dismissal after a challenge on Cheikhou Kouyat\u00e9. Following the defeat to West Ham, Ak\u00e9 made his full debut against Morecambe in the second round of the EFL Cup on 24 August. On 19 November, in his first Premier League start, Ak\u00e9 scored his first goal for Bournemouth in a 1\u20130 away victory over Stoke City."}, {"context": " On 4 December 2016, Bournemouth played Liverpool and overturned a 3\u20131 deficit with 15 minutes to go to win the match 4\u20133; Ak\u00e9 scoring the winning goal in the 93rd minute minutes, his third Premier League goal and the second against Liverpool. Ak\u00e9 was recalled by Chelsea on 8 January 2017, making his first appearance for the club since the recall on 28 January in a 4\u20130 FA Cup fourth round victory over fellow West London club Brentford. He was also selected to start in Chelsea's 2\u20130 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers in the fifth round of the same competition on 18 February."}, {"context": " On 22 April, Ak\u00e9 started alongside David Luiz and C\u00e9sar Azpilicueta in central defence in Chelsea's 4\u20132 FA Cup semi-final victory over rivals Tottenham Hotspur at Wembley Stadium. On 30 June 2017, Ak\u00e9 signed a contract with Premier League club AFC Bournemouth on a permanent basis for a club record of \u00a320\u00a0million transfer fee, with the player officially re-joining the club the following day, when the 2017 transfer window opened. On 21 July, it was reported his former club Chelsea had inserted a buy-back clause for Ak\u00e9 in his transfer contract."}, {"context": " Ak\u00e9 has represented the Netherlands at every youth level since his under-15 debut in 2009, making 54 appearances in total. He has captained both the U17 and the U19 sides. Ak\u00e9 was selected into both squads that won the UEFA European Under-17 Championships in 2011 and 2012 in Serbia and in Slovenia, respectively. Ak\u00e9 was also eligible to represent the Ivory Coast through his father Moise. Ak\u00e9 made his senior international debut in a friendly against Morocco, which the Netherlands won 2\u20131. Ak\u00e9 has been praised for his versatility, being able to play at both full back, centre back and in defensive midfield, which has been attributed to a good work ethic, professionalism and gifted technique. His calmness on the ball and appearance have led to comparisons to former Dutch legend and Chelsea player Ruud Gullit, with his versatility compared to David Luiz.  Ak\u00e9 said that even though he has played as a defender in recent seasons, he sees himself as a holding midfielder and that his favourite position is in the midfield. Ak\u00e9's father is from the Ivory Coast. He is teetotal. Chelsea Netherlands U17 Individual"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Alcock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Alcock (September 1707 \u2013 8 December 1779) was an English physician. Nathan Alcock was born at Aston, near Runcorn, Cheshire, England, the second son of David Alcock and his wife Mary n\u00e9e Breck. David Alcock was a descendent of Bishop John Alcock, the founder of Jesus College, Cambridge. He was educated initially by his parents and then at a local school but he left this school, probably because of his dislike of the schoolmaster. He promised his father that he would qualify in medicine in return for a small estate in Wirral, Cheshire, which was worth about \u00a350 a year. He went to medical school at Edinburgh, and then to Leiden where he was taught by Boerhaave and his contemporaries, Gaubius, Albinus, and Gravesand. He graduated M.D. in 1737."}, {"context": " He returned to England and went to Oxford University. Here he found that one of the professors in the medical faculty gave no lectures and the other did not reside there. He therefore began to give unauthorised lectures in anatomy and chemistry. This led to opposition from the professors who argued that his theological opinions were unsound. However his lectures were popular with the students and he was supported by eminent people including William Blackstone and Robert Lowth (who was later Bishop of London). In 1741 he was granted the degree of M.A. and was incorporated from Jesus College. He graduated B.M. in 1744, and M.D. in 1749. Also in 1749 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1754 was made Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London."}, {"context": " He built up a large practice in Oxford and became very wealthy. However, possibly because of ill health, or following the death of a woman he intended to marry, he returned to Runcorn. Here he built up a practice as large as his practice had been in Oxford. He died from a stroke in Runcorn in 1779 and was buried in the parish church there. Politically he was a whig and theologically he was a follower of Bishop Hoadly. His Leiden thesis was on pneumonia. He published nothing during his lifetime but his brother Thomas, vicar of Runcorn, edited and published his \"The Rise of Mahomet, Accounted for on Natural and Civil Principles\" in 1796. Also after Nathan's death, in 1780, Thomas Alcock published his biography entitled \"Some Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Nathan Alcock\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Aleskovsky", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Aleskovsky (1913 \u2013 November 11, 1969) was an employee of \"The New York Times\" in the 1950s. He worked as an assistant to the editor of \"The New York Times Book Review\". In January 1956 he was forced to testify before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, chaired by James O. Eastland, after being fingered in fellow journalist Winston Burdett's testimony. Aleskovsky had worked for the \"Times\" for five years at the time he was subpoenaed in November 1955. When Aleskovsky was asked by the committee if he was a Communist he denied \"now being a Communist\". He refused to say if he had ever belonged to the Party. \"The New York Times\" asked for and received Aleskovsky's resignation prior to the hearing. Of the 26 subpoenas that came down in November 1955 for the January 1956 hearings 26 of them went to past or present \"The New York Times\" employees, Aleskovsky was among six who cited the Fifth Amendment as protection from answering the subcommittee's questions.  Time Magazine article, Jan. 16, 1956"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Allen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Allen is a travel writer and photographer from The United States. He is the creator of the lifestyle and travel website \u201cI Dreamed Of This\u201d. In November 2013 he finished up a year living around and exploring the Philippines, then wrote an article about his observations. It was originally titled \u201cWhat I REALLY Think Of The Philippines\u201d, but has since been changed to: \u201cLiving in the Philippines - A Confused American's Perspective\u201d. Sun.Star Manila reported that the article went viral. Philippine network GMA News Online republished the article on November 30, 2013, retitling it \u201cA year in the PHL: Honest observations from a Westerner on his way home\u201d."}, {"context": " In January 2016, Nathan ended up on the #2 spot of HuffPost UK's \"World's Top Male Travel Bloggers\". CNN Philippines reports that on a subsequent visit to the Philippines in April 2015, Allen wrote a Facebook post about being \u201cdisappointed in Donsol\u201d, a town in the eastern region of Sorsogon. Allegedly, Allen had visited the Donsol Tourism Office, and explained who he was and why he was there. He requested the staff to have the local tourism officer contact him. He stated that he never received a response.  Citing that Allen\u2019s post had reached \u201cthousands of people\u201d who may no longer want to visit Donsol, the board of the Donsol Tourism Office filed a resolution declaring him persona non grata in Sorsogon on May 2nd."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Allen House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan Allen House is a historic house on Vermont Route 30 in Pawlet, Vermont. Built about 1834, it is an excellent local example of a late Federal period farmhouse built in brick. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988. The Nathan Allen House stands on the west side of Vermont Route 30, a few miles north of Pawlet's central village, in the fertile plains on the east side of the Mettawee River. It is a 2-1/2 story brick structure, with single-story wood frame ells attached to the right and rear. It rests on a rubblestone foundation, and has trim elements of dressed marble and wood. The main block is five bays wide, with a center entrance flanked by sidelight windows. The left side wall is a reconstruction, the original having collapsed due to deteriorating condition in 1983. The house has four side chimneys, and follows a center-hall plan inside. The interior has seen a number of alterations and stylistic changes, but retains some of its original features, including a carved arch in the center hall, and a marble fireplace surround in one of the parlors.  The house was built about 1834 for Nathan Allen, a farmer who owned and worked the surrounding land (now in separate ownership). It is one of two nearly identical houses built in this area; the other was built for Nathan's brother Elisha. They are the only significant example of late Federal period architecture in the area."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Alterman", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Alterman (, August 14, 1910 \u2013 March 28, 1970) was an Israeli poet, playwright, journalist, and translator. Though never holding any elected office, Alterman was highly influential in Socialist Zionist politics, both before and after the establishment of the State of Israel. Nathan Alterman was born in Warsaw, Poland (then part of the Russian Empire). He moved to Tel Aviv with his family in 1925, when he was 15 years old, and continued his studies at the Herzliya Hebrew High School. When he was 19 years old, he travelled to Paris to study at the University of Paris (a.k.a. La Sorbonne), but a year later he decided to go to Nancy to study agronomy. Though maintaining close contacts with his family and friends in Tel Aviv and visiting them on vacations, Alterman spent three years in France and was highly influenced by his occasional meetings with French artists and writers. When he returned to Tel Aviv in 1932, he started working at the Mikveh Yisrael agricultural school, but soon left it in favour of working as a journalist and poet."}, {"context": " Alterman is credited with bringing the seeds of the marmande tomato to Israel, where it was the main species cultivated in the country until the 1960s. Alterman's first published book of poetry was \"Kokhavim Bakhuts\" (\"Stars Outside\"), published in 1938. This volume, with its \"neo-romantic themes, highly charged texture, and metrical virtuosity,\" as Israeli critic Benjamin Harshav puts it, established him as a major force in modern Hebrew literature. His next major book was \"The Joy of the Poor\" ( \"\u1e61im\u1e25\u00e0t aniy\u00edm\", 1941), which many regard as his magnum opus. This is a kaleidoscopic phantasmagoria consisting of 31 interconnected poems, all from the viewpoint of the ghost of a dead man obsessed with the living woman he loves \u2013 a reversal of the Orpheus and Eurydice story. The dead man wants to protect his living love from war and poverty, but more than anything he wants to drag her into his world. His plans are continually frustrated. The light from a humble candle is enough to drive him back. The story reads like a supernatural thriller, but the rhyme and the meters are regular and elegant."}, {"context": " In 1942, when the first news about the Holocaust reached the Zionist Jewish community in British Mandate Palestine, Alterman wrote a poem, which can be described as a sarcastic paraphrase on the Jewish prayer, \"Praised are You ... who has chosen us out of all the nations\". In this poem Alterman says, \"At our children's cry, shadowed by scaffolds, we heard not the world's furor. For you have chosen us out of all nations, you loved and favoured us. For you have chosen us of all nations, of Norwegians, Czechs and Britons. As they march toward scaffolds, Jewish children of reason, they know their blood shan't be reckoned among the rest, they just call to the mother 'turn away your face'.\" In 1943, Alterman wrote the maqama \"The Swedish Tongue\", in which he praised Sweden's willingness to welcome Jewish refugees from Denmark."}, {"context": " In 1943, he also wrote a poem that was critical of Pope Pius XII, a poem that is featured at the Yad Vashem museum. During the 1945\u20131947 years of the Zionist movement's struggle against British rule, Alterman's weekly column in the Labour Movement \"Davar\" newspaper was highly influential, strongly denouncing the British army's oppressive measures and praising the illegal immigrant boats landing Jewish holocaust survivors on the country's shores, in defiance of British policy. The most well-known of these is the 1945 \"In Praise of an Italian Captain\" ()."}, {"context": " In the early stages of the Israeli War of Independence he wrote numerous patriotic poems, the most well-known of which is \"The Silver Platter\" ( \"mag\u00e1sh ha-k\u00e9sef\"). Having become a canonical text read on Israel's Remembrance Day, this poem was written in response to Chaim Weizmann's words in December 1947, after the adoption of the UN Partition Plan for Palestine, \"No state is ever handed on a silver platter... The partition plan does not give the Jews but an opportunity\". In his poem, Alterman describes a scene similar to the Biblical Revelation on Mount Sinai, where the Jewish People are waiting to receive the Jewish state, as the Israelite were waiting to receive the Torah. And yet, instead of Moses descending with the Tablets of Stone, the people see two unfamiliar youths, a boy and a girl, wounded and near dead with exhaustion. When asked, \"Who are you?\" they reply, \"We are the silver platter on which the state of the Jews was handed to you\"."}, {"context": " During the 1950s, Alterman was opposed to the martial law imposed at the time on Israel's Arab citizens (until 1966), and was also strongly supportive of workers' struggle such as the 1952 sailors' strike which was suppressed by the Ben Gurion Government. After the Six-Day War, Alterman was one of the founders of the Movement for Greater Israel finding himself in alliance with right-wing activists whom he greatly opposed in earlier times of his career. He criticized David Ben-Gurion (who only held at the time the position of a Knesset member, but was still influential) for being too willing to give up the territories captured during the war in return for a peace agreement.  Alterman translated Shakespeare, Moli\u00e8re, Racine and Russian classics into Hebrew and Yiddish. He wrote the lyrics of the famous Moshe Vilenski song Kalaniyot, sung by Shoshana Damari. Some of Alterman's poems have been turned into popular songs, e.g., \"A meeting with no end\" (\u05e4\u05d2\u05d9\u05e9\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05e7\u05e5). Alterman has been featured on Israel's NIS 200 bill since 2016."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Altman", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Isaevich Altman (Russian: , transliterated: \"Natan Isayevich Altman\"; \u2013 December 12, 1970) was a Jewish, Russian and Soviet avant-garde artist, Cubist painter, stage designer and book illustrator. He was born in Vinnytsia, in the Podolia Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine) to a family of Jewish merchants. From 1902 to 1907, he studied painting and sculpture at the Art College in Odessa (now independent Ukraine). In 1906, he had his first exhibition in Odessa. In 1910, he went to Paris, where he stayed for one year. He studied at the Free Russian Academy in Paris, working in the studio of Wladimir Baranoff-Rossine, and had contact with Marc Chagall, Alexander Archipenko, and David Shterenberg. In 1910, he became a member of the group \"Soyuz Molodyozhi\" (Union of Youth)."}, {"context": " In 1912, Altman moved to Saint Petersburg. His famous \"Portrait of Anna Akhmatova\", conceived in Cubist style, was painted in 1914. From 1915 to 1917, Nathan Altman was the teacher at Mikhail Bernstein's private art school. After 1916 he started to work as a stage designer. In 1918, he was the member of the Board for Artistic Matters within the Department of Fine Arts of the People's Commissariat of Enlightenment together with Malevich, Baranoff-Rossine and Shevchenko. In the same year he had an exhibition with the group \"Jewish Society for the Furthering of the Arts\" in Moscow, together with Wladimir Baranoff-Rossine, El Lissitzky and the others. In this same year, he installed a temporary work of architectural sculpture in Palace Square to commemorate the 1st anniversary of the October Revolution. The canvas was subsequently cut up and used for soldiers' foot bindings."}, {"context": " In 1920, he became a member of the \"Institute for Artistic Culture\" (INKHUK), together with Kasimir Malevich, Vladimir Tatlin and the others. In the same year, he participated in the exhibition \"From Impressionism to Cubism\" in the Museum of Painterly Culture in Petrograd.(now Saint Petersburg). In 1921, he moved to Moscow. From 1921 to 1922 he was director of the Museum of Painterly Culture in Petrograd. From 1920 to 1928, he worked on stage designs for the Habimah Theatre and the Jewish State Theatre in Moscow. In 1923 a volume of his Jewish graphic art, \"Evrejskaja grafika Natana Al'tmana: Tekst Maksa Osborna [Max Osborn]\", was published in Berlin."}, {"context": " In 1925, he participated in \"Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes\" (\"Art Deco\") in Paris together with Aleksandra Ekster, Vadim Meller, Rudolf Frentz, Sonia Delaunay-Terk and David Shterenberg. His first solo exhibition in Leningrad was in 1926. Altman moved to Paris in 1928. In 1936, he returned to Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). He worked mainly for the theatre, as a book illustrator and an author of essays about art. Nathan Altman died in Leningrad aged 81."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Altshiller Court", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Altshiller Court (1881-1968) was a Polish-American mathematician, a geometer in particular and author of the famous book \"College Geometry - An Introduction to the Modern Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle\". Nathan Court was born on 22 January 1881, in Warsaw, Poland. He attended the \"University of Uege\" and the University of Ghent in Belgium where he received his D.Sc in 1911. Soon after he came to the United States, he studied and taught at Columbia University. In 1912 he married \"Sophie Ravltch\", whom he had known in Warsaw. Dr. Court taught at the University of Washington and the University of Colorado before coming to the University of Oklahoma in 1918. In 1919, he became a U.S. citizen and changed his last name to Court, keeping Altshiller as a middle name. He became a full Professor at the University of Oklahoma in 1935 and retired in 1951. He died in Norman 20 July 1968."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Amanquah", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Amanquah (born in 1973) is an engineer, a Web developer and educator who is currently the acting Dean of engineering at Ashesi University. He was the acting Dean of Academic Affairs at Ashesi University in 2010 when he filled in for prof. Nana Araba Apt in her absence.Before he joined Ashesi University as an Assistant professor in 2004, he worked as a Systems analyst at The Bulk Oil Storage and Transportation Company Limited (BOST) Ghana,a Communications engineer at SSB Bank, Ghana, and electronics Instructor at Accra Polytechnic. Nathan has contributed massively to the design and development of the computer Science and engineering programs at Ashesi University. Nathan together with G. Ayorkor Mills-Tettey and two others in collaboration with a visiting professor from Carnegie Mellon University, Institute of Robotics designed and taught the first Introductory Robotics course in Ghana at Ashesi University during summer 2006. He holds membership with Institution of Electronic & Electrical Engineers (IEEE), Ghana Institution of Engineers (GhIE) and a current Ghana board member for Worldreader Organization. Nathan and Selasi Agbemenu organized the first ever African Workshop on Emerging Trends in Circuits and Systems (WETCaS) IEEE at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology , Ghana in November 2017.  Early Life and Education"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ames", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ames (November 17, 1826 in Roxbury, New Hampshire \u2013 August 17, 1865 in Saugus, Massachusetts) was a patent solicitor who held the first patent in the United States for an escalator-like machine. The patent (#25,076) was granted on August 9, 1859, for an invention he called \"Revolving Stairs\". The escalator had steps mounted on a continuous belt or chain. He also patented machines for improvement in polishing leather during the time when Lynn's shoemaking industry was one of the largest in the world. Another one of his patents was for a polygraph, an early copying machine that operated by using pens connected by wires. Another patent he held was for an improved grater.  A writer and a poet, Ames has a disquisition and a Class Ode published during his time at Harvard. His book of poetry \"Pirate\u2019s Glen and Dungeon Rock\" was published in 1853. These poems were based the local pirate legend of Dungeon Rock. His brother Joseph was an American portrait artist. Ames was educated at Phillips Academy at Andover, and Harvard College."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Amos", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Amos (; born August 11, 1979) is an international rugby union player for Israel. Amos is one of the only Israeli rugby players that played his trade abroad and is the most capped player in Israel . Amos played for Rainey Old Boys Rugby Club in Northern Ireland from 2002 to 2011. He moved to play in the Rugby-Bundesliga for TV Pforzheim in the start of the 2011\u201312 season where Pforzheim finished as runners up. In January 2013 he returned to Israel to play for ASA Tel Aviv Rugby Club with them he won the Israeli championship in 2015 and 2016.  In 2005, Amos scored the winning try for Israel against the United Kingdom at the Maccabiah Games to secure the bronze medal. Amos was a critical part of Israel's promotion from the European Division 3C to 3B in 2009. Nathan's younger brother, Danny, is a professional football player in Israel."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Antunes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Antunes (born 23 April 1988) in Sydney, Australia is best known as an Australian race car driver. Educated at Trinity Grammar School in Sydney, he has raced in a variety of classes throughout the world. Antunes began his career in 1996 and was Goulburn Kart Club Champion in 1997, 1998 (midget karting) and 1999 (rookie karting). He was also the North Shore Kart Club Champion and ACT Junior Sprint Classic Champion in 1998 and 1999 In 2001, Antunes made his first appearance in National Championships Junior National Light and placed 7th in the Junior Clubman NSW Championship. In 2002 he placed 5th in the Junior ICA Australian Championship, 4th in the Junior Piston Port NSW Championship (Junior ICA) and 4th in the Junior Clubman NSW Championship improving on his 7th place the year before."}, {"context": " 6 In 2003, Antunes placed 5th in the ICA Australian Championship and competed in the Formula 100 Light Australian Championships aged 14. Unfortunately an accident in the semi final of Clubman Light did not allow him to complete the season. Antunes began in Formula Ford after missing the first race of the season due to age licence restrictions. He placed 5th in the NSW Championship in 2004. He competed in one race in his home state of New South Wales at Oran Park Raceway. In 2005, Antunes moved to Europe to pursue his career and competed in the Formula BMW UK Championship. Antunes drove for Motaworld Racing finishing 7th in the championship and in the top 5 teams. The season included one win, 3 third placings and 3 pole positions."}, {"context": " Antunes also raced at the Formula BMW World Championship in Bahrain for Motaworld Racing. He finished 5th \u2013 the highest finish for Motaworld racing to date \u2013 up from 18th place in qualifying. 2006 saw Antunes step into Formula Renault car for the first time North European and European Series but did not race the full season. Racing with Motopark Academy, Antunes raced at Circuit Zolder, also known as Circuit Terlaemen in Belgium, qualifying 23rd and finishing 14th. He also raced in the Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup at Motorsport Arena Oschersleben in Germany, Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps in Belgium and N\u00fcrburgring in Germany."}, {"context": " Antunes also tested at the World Series by Renault. Antunes also competed in the Formula 3 Recaro Cup German Championship in 2006 with the HS Technik Motorsport team. At three events Antunes placed eighth, sixth, fourth, third, first and retired due to car failure and took one pole position in six races. Antunes also tested at the World Series by Renault. On 30 October 2007, Antunes tested for Super Nova Racing at Paul Ricard Circuit in France. Antunes competed in the Toyota Racing Series in New Zealand with Team European Technique owned by Trevor Sheumatk. Trevor Scheumatk is the Managing Director of Track Tyres, the sole distributor of Michelin Racing Tyres in Australia and New Zealand. He placed 14th.  He made his A1 Grand Prix debut with A1 Team Australia in Shanghai, China in April 2008. He drove in the Rookie seesions for the team, placing 7th and 8th in session 1 and 2 respectively. This paced the team in 7th overall. In Brands Hatch in May 2008, he again drove for the team in the Rookie sessions, notching up a 10th and an 8th place. \u2020 Team result"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Apea Aferi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Major General Nathan Apea Aferi (September 1923 \u2013 8 April 2003) was a soldier and politician in Ghana. He was a former Chief of the Defence Staff of Ghana. He also served briefly as Foreign Minister of Ghana. Aferi served with the United Nations Operation in the Congo now the Democratic Republic of Congo. At the time, he was a Lieutenant Colonel in the Ghana army. He is reported to have been on guard at Radio Congo when Patrice Lumumba attempted a broadcast in the confusion around the time of Congo's independence in 1960 from Belgium."}, {"context": " Aferi continued in the military on his return to Ghana where he rose to the rank of Brigadier. He was promoted Major General and made the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) after the dismissal of Major General Otu, then CDS by President Nkrumah. He was the last CDS to serve before the overthrow of Nkrumah in Ghana's first military coup. Aferi was the first Commissioner for Foreign Affairs in the National Redemption Council military government of General Kutu Acheampong in 1972. Aferi died on April 8, 2003 in Accra, Ghana."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Appleton", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Appleton (October 6, 1779July 14, 1861) was an American merchant and politician and a member of \"The Boston Associates\". Appleton was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, the son of Isaac Appleton (1731\u20131806) and his wife Mary Adams (1741\u20131827). Appleton's father was a church deacon, and Nathan was brought up in the \"strictest form of Calvinistic Congregationalism\". Appleton was also the cousin of William Appleton (1786\u20131862) and James Appleton (1785\u20131862). His paternal grandparents were Elizabeth Sawyer (1709\u20131785) and Isaac Appleton (1704\u20131794), the son of Isaac Appleton (1664\u20131747) and Priscilla Baker, granddaughter of Lt. Gov. Samuel Symonds."}, {"context": " He was educated in the New Ipswich Academy. He then entered Dartmouth College in 1794, however, that same year he left college to begin mercantile life in Boston, Massachusetts, working for his brother Samuel (1766\u20131853), a successful and benevolent man of business, with whom he was in partnership from 1800 to 1809. In 1813, Appleton co-operated with Francis Cabot Lowell, Patrick T. Jackson, Paul Moody and others in introducing the power loom and the manufacture of cotton on a large scale into the United States, establishing a factory at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814. The Waltham mill employed the first power loom ever used in the United States. This proving successful, he and others purchased the water-power at Pawtucket Falls, and he was one of the founders of the Merrimac Manufacturing Company. The settlement that grew around these factories developed into the city of Lowell, of which in 1821 Appleton was one of the three founders. In a pamphlet entitled \"The Origin of Lowell\", Appleton wrote of the mills: \"The contrast in the character of our manufacturing population with that of Europe has been the admiration of most intelligent strangers. The effect has been to more than double the wages of that description of labor from what they were before the introduction of this manufacture\"."}, {"context": " Appleton was a member of the general court of Massachusetts in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and 1827. In 1831-1833 and also 1842 he served in the United States House of Representatives, in which he was prominent as an advocate of protective duties. He was also a member of the Academy of Science and Arts, and of the Massachusetts Historical Society. He published speeches and essays on currency, banking, and the tariff, of which his \"Remarks on Currency and Banking\" (enlarged ed., 1858) is the most celebrated, as well as his memoirs on the power loom and Lowell. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1842, and elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1854."}, {"context": " Appleton married Maria Theresa Gold (1786\u20131833) on April 13, 1806. Two months later, he hired the artist Gilbert Stuart to paint portraits of the newlyweds. The couple had five children: The Appletons attended Federal Street Church. Maria Theresa Appleton died of tuberculosis in 1833. Nathan Appleton remarried on January 8, 1839, to Harriot Coffin Sumner (1802\u20131867), the daughter of Jesse Sumner, a Boston merchant, and Harriot Coffin of Portland, Maine. They had three children: He gave his daughter Fanny, who married Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in 1843, a house in which her husband had rented rooms as a wedding gift (it is now known as the Longfellow House\u2013Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site). He paid $10,000 for the home. Frances wrote to her brother Thomas on August 30, 1843: \"We have decided to let Father purchase this grand old mansion\", which was also a former headquarters of George Washington during the American Revolutionary War. Nathan Appleton also purchased the land across the street, as Longfellow's mother wrote, \"so that their view of the River Charles may not be intercepted\".  Fanny Appleton died on July 10, 1861, after accidentally catching fire; her father was too sick to attend her funeral. Appleton died the next day in Boston on July 14, 1861."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Appleton Residence", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan Appleton Residence, also known as the Appleton-Parker House, is a historic house located at 39\u201340 Beacon Street in the Beacon Hill neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It was designated a National Historic Landmark for its association with revolutionary textile manufacturer Nathan Appleton (1779\u20131861), and as the site in 1843 of the wedding of his daughter Frances and poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The house is an excellent early 19th century design of Alexander Parris. This pair of brick townhouses rise three stories, and are joined by a common firewall. When built in 1821, they were essentially mirror images of each other, differing in only relatively minor interior respects. Their main facades are each three bays wide, with the outer bay a rounded projection with two windows. The door to each unit occupied the center bay and is framed by a wooden surround and topped by a fanlight; a Doric portico provides shelter. At the top of each building a low balustrade conceals a low-pitched roof. In the 1870s a fourth floor was added; the original balustrades were retained. The rounded bays of number 39 were altered in the 1880s by the addition of a third window on each level, and what were originally single-story servant wings in the rear of each unit were extended and raised to three stories by later owners."}, {"context": " The property here had been owned by painter John Singleton Copley and much of the land had been purchased by Dr. John Joy, who headed a real estate company. In 1819, Nathan Appleton and business partner Daniel Pinckney Parker bought a house that had been standing on the property and tore it down. They then had the twin house built, designed by architect Alexander Parris and numbered 39 and 40 Beacon Street. In 1843 Appleton's daughter Frances (Fanny) was married in this house to poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Appleton was one of the great financial minds behind the early industrialization of New England, funding the Boston Manufacturing Company and developing a strategy for selling its products. He parlayed this early success into the later development of major industrial complexes at Lowell and Lawrence, Massachusetts, and also Manchester, New Hampshire. Appleton lived at 39 Beacon Street from 1821 until his death in 1861.  From 1914 to the 1990s it housed the Women's City Club of Boston. It has since been subdivided into condominiums. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1977, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Arkley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Arkley (born 27 October 1994) is an Australian Paralympic athlete. At the 2012 Summer Paralympics, he won a bronze medal. Arkley was born on 27 October 1994. He is a paraplegic as a result of the viral infection, transverse myelitis, he caught when he was eight years old. , he lives in St Agnes, South Australia. He attended St Pauls College in Gilles Plains. Arkley is a T54 classified athlete. He has a special three carbon wheeled racing wheelchair. He has been coached by John Hammon since 2009."}, {"context": " Arkley started competing in wheelchair athletics in 2005. Prior to his paraplegia, he participated in track at school. He first represented Australian in 2009. At the Swiss hosted 2009 IWAS Junior World Championships, he won five silver medals and two gold medals. In 2012, he won the Oz Day 10K men's junior division. He sometimes trains with Jake Lappin. In 2012, he would train by wheeling up to a week. He was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in athletics. Arkley participated in the Men's 5000 m T54, Men's Marathon T54, and the Men's 4 \u00d7 400 m T53/54 \u2013 winning a bronze in the 4 \u00d7 400 m."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Arnold", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Anthony Arnold (born 26 July 1987) is an English footballer who most recently played for Boston United. He is primarily a winger but can also play as a striker. Arnold has previously played for Grimsby Town, Mansfield Town, Hyde United, Alfreton Town, Cambridge United and Lincoln City. Arnold attended Mansfield's Queen Elizabeth's Secondary School and often played for his own year group's school team as well as years above. Arnold came up through the youth team at Mansfield Town, and made his debut against Hereford United in October 2005. He scored his first career goal against Bristol Rovers in December 2005 in his third appearance for Mansfield. By the end of the 2006\u201307 season, he had made over 30 appearances for Mansfield, scoring four goals, and was offered a new contract in May 2007. By the end of the 2007\u201308 season, Arnold had made 70 appearances in all competitions for Mansfield."}, {"context": " After a trial at Grimsby Town in July, he signed for Hyde United in the Conference North on a free transfer in August 2009, but with a sell-on clause in his contract stating that if he was sold in the future, Mansfield would gain some of the profits. His competitive debut for Hyde came with his first goal in a 1\u20130 win against Stafford Rangers, and then in the very next game he netted again in a 1\u20131 draw with Fleetwood Town. He also scored a 25-yard free kick against Salford City in the second qualifying round of the FA Cup."}, {"context": " At the end of his first season with Hyde he was one of the outstanding players in their team scoring 11 goals in 38 games in all competitions, making him Hyde's second-top scorer, two goals behind David McNiven. Arnold spent only a single season at Hyde before returning to the East Midlands, signing-on for Conference North club Alfreton Town, helping them to win the league and achieve promotion to the Conference National in his first season. Arnold was one of the outstanding performers for the club, and immediately became a fans' favourite. He contributed 13 goals in all competitions over the course of the season."}, {"context": " The 2011\u201312 season started badly as Arnold missed a large proportion of the first half of the season after breaking his metatarsal which added to Alfreton Town's already lengthy injury list. After returning he scored at both ends in a bizarre game against Hayes & Yeading where there were four goals in injury time and the final score being 3\u20132. Arnold began to play an integral part in Alfreton Town's upturn in form from the halfway point in the season by contributing goals and assists, and was subsequently named runner-up for the supporters' player of the year for his part in sustaining the team's Conference National status. His contract came to an end at the end of the 2011\u201312 season and thus became a free agent, and was believed to be in discussions with his former club Mansfield Town despite Alfreton Town stating he had agreed to stay, creating confusion amongst the fans. On 5 June 2012, Alfreton Town announced that he had signed a new one-year contract with the club. He again contributed largely to the team's season by scoring nine goals and again contributing key assists helping them to achieve a comfortable midtable finish. In June 2013 Alfreton manager Nicky Law confirmed that Arnold was unlikely to remain with the club for the following season as he was keen to play League football again."}, {"context": " He trialled at former club Mansfield Town but was not offered a contract and instead joined Cambridge United on a two-year deal. In the first half of the season he played a key part, mainly as an impact player from the bench, in the team's good form which seen them unbeaten for the first 16 games of the season, however the team's form soon dipped around Christmas and Arnold then found himself on the sidelines for periods until the end of the season. It was a compliment to the squad overall that the likes of Arnold and Delano Sam-Yorke amongst others found themselves on the sub's bench on many occasions. He did however play a key role in getting Cambridge United to the FA Trophy final by scoring the winner in the first round against Salisbury City and also against St. Albans City in the second round. He then made an appearance in every game of the cup run including a 20-minute appearance at Wembley Stadium for the final where Cambridge United beat Gosport Borough 4\u20130 to lift the trophy, and also contributed to them finishing the season in 2nd place and a play-off spot. At the end of the 2014\u201315 season the club did not offer him a new deal when his contract expired."}, {"context": " On 19 July 2014, Arnold joined Grimsby Town on a season long loan deal. Although he started his Grimsby Town career injured he went on to establish himself firmly as a first team starter and helped guide them to the play-offs, where he scored two wonderful goals in the 1\u20132 play off semi-final win over Eastleigh. The club narrowly missed out promotion by losing out in the 2015 Conference Premier play-off Final at Wembley Stadium to Bristol Rovers on penalties, although Arnold set up Lenell John-Lewis' opening goal with a run from the half-way line and then went on to draw 1\u20131 after extra time. His efforts over the season earned him a place in the National League team of the year, alongside the league's outstanding players."}, {"context": " On 29 May 2015, he joined the club on a permanent one-year deal after being released by Cambridge United, citing the positivity around the club following their narrow avoidance of promotion, even despite reported interest from Football League teams. Over the course of the 2015/16 season Arnold once again played an integral part in taking Grimsby to the play-off and FA Trophy finals. Arnold scored the third goal in Grimsby's 3\u20131 victory over Forest Green Rovers in the 2016 National League play-off Final at Wembley, seeing Grimsby promoted to League Two after a six-year absence from the Football League."}, {"context": " At the end of the season, he was offered new terms, but after mulling over the contract, Arnold decided to seek a fresh challenge. \"Several factors\" were behind the decision. On 29 July 2016, Arnold signed for Lincoln City; he was signed using money raised from the club's crowd funding scheme. He made his debut for Lincoln in a 3\u20131 win over Woking. On 17 January 2017, Arnold scored an injury time goal in a 1\u20130 FA Cup replay victory over Ipswich Town to enable Lincoln City to reach the Fourth Round of the FA Cup for the first time in 41 years. On 10 February 2017, Arnold joined Salford on loan from Lincoln until the end of the 2017\u201318 season, where he made three appearances."}, {"context": " On 1 June 2018, Arnold left Lincoln City, following a mutual termination of his contract. The following day, he joined Boston United on a one-year contract, which also included a management role. On 6 October 2018, Arnold left the club by mutual consent. On 27 August 2008, Nathan Arnold received an England C call-up by manager Paul Fairclough along with his Mansfield teammate Jonathan D'Laryea for the match against Bosnia-Herzegovina, which England lost 6\u20132. While playing for Alfreton Town in 2011 Arnold took a barbering course. Within months of playing full-time football with Grimsby Town in 2014, he started a barber career and works in a hairdressers based in Grimsby, he also runs his own mobile barber business.  Arnold has previously spoken about his struggles with anxiety following his mother's sudden death, even suffering an anxiety attack on the morning of the title clinching 2-1 victory against Macclesfield Town."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ashe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ashe (born 5 October 1991) is a professional rugby league footballer. Born in New Zealand he moved to England at the age of 17, he is currently in his first professional season with St. Helens in the engage Super League after excelling at academy level. He plays chiefly as a , but is equally at home at stand-off, and also as a hooker in recent times. Playing with flare and excitement, Nathan has earned much respect from his peers."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ashley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan William Ashley (born 3 October 1973) is a former Australian professional cricket-player. He was born in Sydney. He captained the Australian under 19 team in tests twice and One Day Internationals three times. He played six first-class games in his career scoring 316 runs at an average of 31.60. Five of his first-class appearances were in England for Oxford University in 1999. He did not score a century in the first-class matches in which he played even though he did score 96 on one occasion and another fifty. He never bowled in his first-class career."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ashton", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Wesley Ashton (born 30 January 1987 in Beckton, London) is an English footballer who plays for Isthmian League club Tilbury. He is an ex-England youth international, who had several call-ups to the England Under-20 squad. In the early part of the 2004\u201305 season, Ashton had an ankle injury, but having shaken this off, he made his first appearances for Charlton Athletic's youth team in the 2005\u201306 season. Having been named on the bench the previous match, Nathan made his first-team debut in the League Cup against Carlisle United on 19 September 2006."}, {"context": " Ashton signed for Fulham in August 2007, making his debut in the 3\u20131 win against Reading in November 2007. He never played for the club again. On 27 March 2008, he joined Crystal Palace on loan until the end of the season, though he only featured for 45 minutes for Palace. He joined Wycombe Wanderers on 25 July on a two-year deal, though he left on 30 May 2009 with his contract being cancelled by mutual consent after Ashton expressed a desire to play football more regularly. On 29 October 2009, it was announced that he had joined Wimbledon on a short term contract, with a view to a longer deal."}, {"context": " He made his debut for AFC Wimbledon against Chester City on 31 October at the Deva Stadium. However, he left the club in search of first team football just two weeks later. In 2010, Ashton was charged with rape, but was acquitted at trial by a jury. In December 2010, Ashton joined Isthmian League Premier Division side Cray Wanderers scoring on his debut. His stay there, however, did not last long and he soon joined Conference South side Dover Athletic, where he made his debut in a 2\u20131 victory against Dorchester Town. His first goal for the club came during a final day 4\u20131 victory over St Albans City. In December 2011, Ashton moved to fellow Conference South club Thurrock,  In the summer of 2013, he moved to Billericay Town. Later in the year, he joined Isthmian League Division One North club, Tilbury. He was released later that season due to off field issues."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Aspinall", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Aspinall (born 15 July 1991) is an English darts player currently playing in Professional Darts Corporation events. He hails from Stockport, England. Aspinall began playing in PDC Development and Challenge Tour events in 2012. His first semi-final in those came in 2013, where he lost 4\u20132 to Max Hopp. He won a two-year PDC Tour Card in 2015 through the Q School Order of Merit and qualified for the UK Open, where he beat Chris Dobey 5\u20131 and James Richardson 9\u20134, before losing by a reversal of this scoreline to James Wade in the fourth round. Aspinall's first European Tour appearance was at the Dutch Darts Masters and he squeezed past Jamie Robinson and Vincent van der Voort both 6\u20135. In the third round Justin Pipe eliminated him 6\u20134. Aspinall won the seventh Development Tour event of 2015 with a 4\u20132 victory over Benito van de Pas. He also lost in the final of two other events during the year."}, {"context": " Aspinall made his first televised appearance in the final of the 2015 PDC World Youth Championship, where he played the German Max Hopp. After 10 legs of holding throw, the final deciding leg was thrown by Aspinall, and despite having match darts, it was Hopp who won 6\u20135. Aspinall was beaten 6\u20135 by Stuart Kellett in the second round of the 2016 UK Open. At the sixth Players Championship he reached his first quarter-final on the main tour and narrowly lost 6\u20135 against Vincent van der Voort. Aspinall qualified for his first Grand Slam of Darts, but could not get a win out of his group fixtures with Raymond van Barneveld, Mensur Suljovi\u0107 and Danny Noppert to finish bottom of his group."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Astle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan John Astle (born 15 September 1971) is a former New Zealand cricketer, who played all formats of the game. A right handed batsman who played as an opener in One Day Internationals (ODI), while batting in the middle order in Test matches. In a career that spanned 12 years, Astle played 81 Tests and 223 ODIs accumulating 4,702 and 7,090 runs respectively. As of 2013, he is New Zealand's second-most prolific run scorer. Astle collected 154 wickets with his medium-paced bowling at the international level. He holds two records\u00a0\u2013 scoring the fastest double century in Test cricket and the second highest individual score in the fourth innings of a Test match. Both the records were achieved when he made 222 against England in Christchurch in 2002."}, {"context": " Astle has played County Cricket in England for Derbyshire, Durham and Nottinghamshire and for Canterbury in New Zealand. He was also a footballer who represented Rangers A.F.C. and good at Auto racing. Astle was born in Christchurch, New Zealand, where he is still based; he is married to Kelly Astle and has two children. Astle and his wife Kelly run a childcare centre for which he is the director. His sister, Lisa Astle, represented the New Zealand women's team at the 1993 World Cup, and later married another first-class cricketer, Robbie Frew. Astle is not related to Todd Astle, the later New Zealand Test player, nor to Todd\u2019s father Alec Astle, the Central Districts player of the late 1970s."}, {"context": " Born in 1971 at Christchurch, Astle joined the East Christchurch-Shirley Cricket Club, a cricket club that would produce cricketers like Bruce Taylor, Craig McMillan and Michael Papps. He used to bat at number 6, and played as a batsman who could bowl medium pace. During the 1990\u201391 season, Astle was selected to play for \"New Zealand Young Cricketers\" against \"England Young Cricketers\". Astle managed just 127 runs at an average of 31.75 in the three match series. The following year, Astle made his First-class debut for Canterbury against Central Districts. He hardly managed to score runs at the end of the first three seasons. During the 1994\u201395 season he aggregated 663 runs at an average of 55.25. He played three important innings during the season\u00a0\u2013 96 against Auckland, 175 against Northern Districts and 191 against Wellington. Following impressive performances in the season, he was noticed by the New Zealand selectors."}, {"context": " On 31 May 2006, Lancashire announced that Astle would be a short-term overseas replacement for Australian player Brad Hodge. In 2007 he played for Longton C.C in Staffordshire. He was a part of the Mumbai Champs team in the inaugural 20/20 Tournament of the now defunct Indian Cricket League (ICL). Astle was selected for the ODI series against West Indies in 1995. He was again selected for the series against Sri Lanka where he scored 95 in one of the matches thus enabling New Zealand level the series and ending their losing streak after 13 matches. It was under the insistence of Glenn Turner, then coach of New Zealand, Astle was selected for the Test side and started playing as an opener in ODIs. He was again selected for a five match ODI series in India. In the first four matches, he failed to score, but in the final match he recorded his first ODI century scoring 114 off 128 balls. Newzealand won the match and Astle was declared \"man of the match\", in spite of New Zealand losing the series 3\u20132. The following year Astle made his Test debut against Zimbabwe at Trust Bank Park, Hamilton. In the ODI series, Astle scored a century in the first match and was named \"man of the match\". All in all, he scored 168 runs in the series averaging 56.00. Following that, Astle was named in the New Zealand squad for the 1996 Cricket World Cup that was held in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. He scored his first World Cup hundred in new Zealand's opening match, against England, of the tournament. However, Astle failed to score runs in the rest of the tournament, eventually ended up with 111 runs at an average of 18.5."}, {"context": " Following his dismal performance at the World Cup, Astle was selected for the two match Test series in West Indies. This was his second series after the one against Zimbabwe at home. Until then, he managed just 77 runs in four innings at an average of 19.25, In the first Test at Kensington Oval, he scored 54 (48 balls) and 125 in both innings of the Test.In the second innings he was involved in a partnership of 144 runs with Justin Vaughan for the fifth wicket, a record for New Zealand then. In spite of his performance in the match, New Zealand lost the match by ten wickets. He continued his good form with the bat as he scored 103 in the second Test, enabling New Zealand draw the match, although they lost the series 1\u20130. In the following year, Astle scored 106 against England in the 1st Test of the three\u2013match series. He was involved in a partnership of 106 for the tenth wicket with Danny Morrison, a New Zealand record. His partnership with Morrison helped New Zealand secure a draw and prevented England from winning the test match."}, {"context": " Astle was New Zealand's top run scorer in the 1997 Pepsi Independence Cup, a quadrangular tournament that also included India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. In the first match against Pakistan, he scored 117 and took a career-best figure of four wickets for 43 runs; New Zealand won the match by 22 runs while Astle was named Man of the match. He followed that with 92 against India, a match which New Zealand lost. Although, New Zealand did not progress to the finals, Astle ended up as the fourth-most prolific run scorer with 218 runs at an average of 72.66. He was equally successful with the ball as he captured seven wickets at an average of 15.00. Astle also passed Martin Crowe's record number of one-day hundreds for New Zealand (four) during the tournament."}, {"context": " Astle's success as opener in ODIs continued throughout the season. In a home series against Zimbabwe, he was more consistent, scoring 351 runs including a century. He made scores exceeding 60 in four consecutive matches and was ultimately named \"man of the series\". Astle performed well in the subsequent series' such as the Singer-Akai Nidahas Trophy (1998) and the home series against South Africa accumulating close to 600 runs. Although, Astle was consistent till 1999, he failed miserably in the 1999 Cricket World Cup that took place in England. He managed just 79 runs in nine matches at an average of 8.77. he scored well in the Test series against England including a century. At the end of the century, Astle established himself as one of the key players in New Zealand."}, {"context": " At the start of 2000, New Zealand suffered heavy losses against the Test series against South Africa and Sri Lanka, both at home. Astle made a strong comeback in the ODI series against Pakistan, scoring 240 runs. In the final match of the series, he made 119 off 116 balls that contained 21 fours. During the innings he was involved in a record stand of 193 for the first wicket with captain Stephen Fleming. It helped New Zealand win the series. In the rain-affected 2001\u201302 Trans-Tasman Trophy against Australia, Astle scored moderately in the first two Tests and came back with a valiant 156 not out in the third Test. Though New Zealand had their upper hand throughout the series, it ended in a draw. In the tour he made a career best First-class score of 223 against Queensland. Following that, England visited New Zealand to play five ODIs and three Test matches. In the ODI series, he fare well scoring 221 runs in five innings at an average of 73.66 including a century in the last match. In the first Test, chasing a target of 550 runs, Astle batted at number five went on to make 222, his highest Test score. he set the record for the fastest double-century when he reached the landmark in 153 balls. He took 168 balls hitting 28 fours and 11 sixes before being the last man to be dismissed. During the innings he was involved in a partnership of 118 runs with injured Chris Cairns. Despite this New Zealand lost the match by 98 runs. As of 2013, it remains the second highest score by a player in the fourth innings of a Test match."}, {"context": " Astle made a remarkable comeback to the 2003 World Cup after disastrous performances in the previous two editions that appeared. He scored a century, second in World Cups, against Zimbabwe and finished the tournament with 213 runs from seven matches at an average of 42.60. Immediately following the World Cup, New Zealand toured India to play two Test matches. In the first Test at Ahmedabad, Astle scored 103, when New Zealand were struggling thus helping them save the match. The following year Astle went on to record his highest ODI score when he made 145 not out against USA at the ICC Champions Trophy 2004. By this time, his Test average dipped down; he went on to make only two more hundreds till the end of his career, including one against Zimbabwe. However, he continued his good form in ODIs. In August 2005, he made an unbeaten 115 against India at the final of the Videocon Tri-Series that was held in Zimbabwe. New Zealand won the tournament and Astle was adjudged \"player of the match\"."}, {"context": " During the 2005 Chappell\u2013Hadlee Series and the preceding tour to South Africa, Astle incurred media criticism along with fellow New Zealand cricket team teammates Craig McMillan, Hamish Marshall and James Marshall, for a slump in form. As a result of this, he was dropped from the national team. However he returned to the side in 2006 for the home series against West Indies. He scored 118 not out at Christchurch, and ended up as New Zealand's leading run scorer of the tournament. Over the New Zealand summer, he scored 690 ODI runs from 11 matches at an average of 54.2. He received the \"2005\u20132006 Walter Hadlee Trophy for Best New Zealand One-Day International batsman\"."}, {"context": " While expected to make his fourth World Cup appearance, Astle announced his retirement from international cricket, while he was playing in the Commonwealth Bank Series, on 26 January 2007. He cited lack of motivation and his \"patchy form\" in the recent matches as reasons for retiring. He played his last One-Day International on 23 January 2007 against England at the Adelaide Oval. Astle has been described as the best ODI batsman New Zealand has ever produced. Apart from his role as a batsman, he was also an occasional partnership-breaking medium pace bowler and a competent slip fielder. Because of this multi-utility option he always enjoyed selection in the team but his laid-back attitude resulted him never been considered for the captaincy, despite his seniority."}, {"context": " Astle has also been a competent soccer player, playing for Rangers A.F.C. in Christchurch, a club which also at one time had fellow Black Cap Sir Richard Hadlee on its playing roster. Astle also took up Auto racing in early 2010, competing predominantly at Ruapuna Speedway, Christchurch, driving a Modified Sprint car. The \"New Zealand Cricket Almanack\" named him the \"Player of the Year\" on three occasions \u2013 1995, 1996 and 2002. For his efforts, Astle received the \"Player of the Year\" award in 1998. He was also named New Zealand's \"One-Day International Batsman of the Year\" in 2006. At the 2007 Queen's Birthday Honours, Astle was made a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to cricket.  In 2009, Astle announced his intentions to make a career of coaching, and was appointed the head coach role of the Burnside West Christchurch University Cricket Club, a senior club in the Christchurch Metropolitan league, playing under the Canterbury Cricket Association."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Athaydes Campos Ferreira", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Athaydes Campos Ferreira (born January 18, 1994), known as Nathan, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays who plays as a winger for Brazilian club Goi\u00e1s Esporte Clube. In Inter's youth always stands out, in 2011 turned out to be summoned by the Brazil U17. His professional debut took place on October 17, 2013 in game valid for S\u00e9rie A against the Santos by a score of 0\u20130."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Austin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Austin (born 15 February 1994) is an English professional footballer, who plays as a striker for Inverness Caledonian Thistle. He has previously played for East Fife and Falkirk. Austin, born in Hertfordshire, England moved to Scotland with his family in 2001 at the age of seven. Whilst playing for youth side East Wemyss District under-15s, Austin came to the attention of the media after being subjected to racist abuse during matches for the side. Initially it was reported that he was to quit football because of the abuse, however he vowed to persevere after receiving support from the public and then-Scottish FA chief executive Gordon Smith. Eventually Austin signed for amateur side Leven United, before moving on to Scottish League One side East Fife in July 2013."}, {"context": " Austin made his debut for the Methil club in the Scottish Challenge Cup against Forfar Athletic, coming on as an 85th minute substitute for Scott McBride and his first goal for the side came in a 1\u20130 defeat of Arbroath in January 2014. His second season with the club saw him improve on the five goals he scored in his debut season, with the striker netting 14 times in competitive 38 matches, including a hat-trick against Threave Rovers in the Scottish Cup and four in the league against Elgin City in a 3\u20135 victory. His third season with East Fife started even more brightly, and by January 2016 Austin had scored 16 goals in 25 appearances, adding two further hat-tricks to his score-sheet against both Montrose and Stirling Albion. His performances attracted the attention of a number of top-tier sides, with Motherwell, Aberdeen and Dundee all reported as targeting Austin for a potential move. Austin was eventually signed by Scottish Championship side Falkirk on 15 January 2016, with the player remaining at Bayview Stadium on loan for the remainder of the season as part of the deal."}, {"context": " Austin continued to lead the line prolifically for the Fifers in the second half of the season; he scored one goal and assisted another the day after his transfer to Falkirk in a 4\u20132 win away to Annan Athletic, and also scored the following week in a 3\u20131 away victory at East Stirling. East Fife were to go on a great run of form towards the business end of the season, and eventually finished top of League Two, ensuring promotion to League One and giving Austin a league winners medal. Austin spent just under two years with Falkirk, before being released from his contract in December 2017. He then signed for Inverness Caledonian Thistle, and made his debut in a 1\u20131 draw against Livingston on 2 January 2018. He scored his first hat-trick for the club on 14 April 2018, in 5\u20131 win against Dumbarton.  Austin's younger brother Jordan is also a footballer and played alongside him at East Fife."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ausubel", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ausubel (June 15, 1898\u2013November, 1986) was an American historian, folklorist and humorist. He specialized in Jewish culture. Ausubel was born in Le\u017cajsk, Galicia, the sixth of eight children in a Jewish family, and immigrated as a child with his family to Brooklyn, New York City in 1902. He later attended Columbia University. Ausubel enlisted in the Jewish Legion's 39th Battalion during World War I and fought in the Jordan Valley. He was married to briefly to Manya Schrager, and then Marynn Ausubel till her death in 1980; they had one daughter, Ethel Ausubel Frimmet. His nephew David P. Ausubel became a noted professor, educator, ethnographer, and a pioneer in cognitive educational psychology."}, {"context": " Ausubel is best known for his two books, \"A Treasury of Jewish Folklore\", which went through over twenty editions, and \"Pictorial History Of The Jewish People.\" This included detailed descriptions of previously unknown Lost Tribes of Israel, as well as information on the Khazars. A partial bibliography follows: Ausubel translated several works of Yiddish literature, most notably \"Mother\", by Sholom Asch. He also co-edited the annual series \"Voices of History\". \"Jews have received their tempering from an unflinching realism learned for a high fee in the school of life; they have always felt the need of fortifying their spirits with the armor of laughter against the barbs of the world.\"- \"A Treasury Of Jewish Folklore,\" 1948."}, {"context": " \"Folklore is a true and unguarded portrait, for where art may be selective, may conceal, may gloss over defects and even prettify, folk art is always revealing, always truthful in the sense that it is spontaneous expression.\"- \"A Treasury Of Jewish Folklore,\" 1948. \"First you laugh at a Jewish joke or quip. Then, against your will, you suddenly fall silent and thoughtful. And that is because Jews are so frequently jesting philosophers. A hard life has made them realists, realists without illusion.\" - \"A Treasury of Jewish Humor,\" 1951.  \"Of all the astonishing experiences of the widely dispersed Jewish people none was more extraordinary than that concerning the Khazars.\"- \"Pictorial History of the Jewish People,\" 1953."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Aviezer", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Aviezer is an American-Israeli physicist who writes on Torah and science, especially on evolution and cosmology from an Orthodox Jewish perspective. He is a Professor of Physics and former Chairman of the Physics Department of Bar-Ilan University. Aviezer was born in Switzerland in 1935 and raised in the United States. He received his doctorate in physics from the University of Chicago, and subsequently held a research position at the University of Illinois in the research group of Professor John Bardeen, the only person ever to be awarded two Nobel Prizes in physics. He was then invited to join the research group at the IBM Watson Research Center near New York headed by Professor Leo Esaki, who was also a Nobel Prize winner. In 1967, Aviezer and his wife Dvora made aliyah to Israel. He is the author of 140 scientific articles on solid state physics. In recognition of his important research contributions, he was honored by being elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (1984)."}, {"context": " In addition to his scientific research, Aviezer has a long-standing involvement in Torah and science and he has written three books on the subject: \"In the Beginning\" (translated into nine languages),\"Fossils and Faith\" (translated into four languages), \"Modern Science and Ancient Faith\" (recently published). For several decades, Aviezer has received invitation to lecture on the subject of Torah and science throughout the world. Aviezer also gives a course in Torah and science at Bar-Ilan University. In 1999, his course was awarded the prestigious Templeton Prize. Aviezer continues to give lectures on Torah and science throughout Israel as well as abroad."}, {"context": " Aviezer is particularly notable for being one of very few modern writers from the religious Jewish perspective to publish on the subject of Torah and science, using the language of science and rejecting creationism. Aviezer allows for divine guidance within an evolutionary paradigm in the transmutation of species over time, including the emergence of modern man. He interprets the six days of creation as broadly referring to large periods of time, an interpretation for which he cites rabbinic sources, including Maimonides and Nachmanides, citing in particular the problem with defining the several \"days\" of creation that precede the creation of the Sun, according to the Biblical narrative."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ayres House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan Ayres House is a single-family home located at 604 North Water Street in Owosso, Michigan. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. Nathan Ayres was born in 1842 and arrived in Owosso as a young man. He was a brick mason by trade, and was well-off enough that in about 1883 he constructed this brick home on North Water Street. Little more is known about Nathan, but his daughter, Effie, (born in 1867), was educated in Owosso and taught in the local school system for many years before being promoted to principal at Owosso's Central School.  The Nathan Ayres House is an Italianate structure with a distinctive five-sided bay on the front facade. It has tall one-over-one double hung sash windows topped with carved stone lintels, a broad front porch, and squared brackets underneath the eaves of a hipped roof."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Azarcon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Peter H. Azarcon is an award-winning Filipino musician, nationalist, songwriter, and producer. He is currently the bassist and one of the founding members of Filipino rock band Rivermaya. He was also a member of Filipino rock bands Pinikpikan, Kapatid and a founding member of Bamboo and Hijo (where he is the lead vocalist). His complete body of work includes hits produced while he was a member of four different bands. Albums on which he has performed have been certified Gold, Platinum, and Multi-Platinum. In recognition of his work, he has been honored by NU Rock Awards; Katha Music Awards; MTV Pilipinas Music Awards; and the Awit Awards, which are presented and organized by the Philippine Association of the Record Industry (PARI)."}, {"context": " A fierce advocate of South East Asian culture, Azarcon, who was a prominent fixture on magazine covers during the 90's and 2000's is partially credited (along with Karl Roy, MMA fighter Brandon Vera) for the popular resurgence of the Austro-Polynesian/Indo-Malay script Baybayin in modern Filipino culture. Azarcon first started playing bass during the early 90s with punk funk rock band, Bazurak. They covered songs from Sex Pistols, Red Hot Chili Peppers, and the Ramones. The members included Junji Lerma, guitar player for Radioactive Sago Project; Richard Recto on vocals; Paolo Lerma on drums; J-John Valencia on guitars; and Mark Escueta on drums."}, {"context": " In 1998, Azarcon started his apprenticeship under Sammy Asuncion, guitar player of Pinoy funk-reggae-rock band Spy and ethnic rock group Pinikpikan, a group renowned for reinventing musical pieces using indigenous tribal instruments. Azarcon eventually joined Pinikpikan. Notable members include Grace Nono, Rene \"Chong\" Tengasantos and Bob Aves. Azarcon under the moniker \"Elqpal\", fit well with the band's ethno-tribal rhythms. In 2000, the band released their album \"Atas\" on the Tropical Records label, a subsidiary of A&M Records. The recording won the Philippine's 2001 Katha Music Award for Album of the Year, Best World Song, and Best Performance for \"Kalipay\". Other standout tracks on the album include \"Aumoon\", \"Salidumay\", and \"Singkilan\"."}, {"context": " In February 2001, Azarcon departed from Rivermaya after a 7-year stint with the band since its inception in 1994. He eventually went back to the band 15 years later. The band Kapatid \"(lit. English: sibling)\" came together through an informal gathering of friends with diverse musical talents in other bands. The original lineup included Karl Roy of Advent Call and P.O.T.; Marinito \"J-hoon\" Balbuena of Kjwan; Ira Cruz previously of Passage; Azarcon; and Chico Molina. In 2002, the band went on to release their debut album \"Edsa 524\". The album contains the singles \"Pagbabalik Ng Kwago\", \"I like it like this\", and \"Visions\". The band split apart rather quickly, with a couple of members leaving for other bands under less than amicable circumstances. Roy later stated of the breakup, \"There was lots of talk about brotherhood and respect and the joy of playing music together. Unfortunately, things didn't turn that way. The band split apart rather quickly, as a couple of members left for another band, under less than amicable circumstances. First, guitarist Ira Cruz left, and then Azarcon followed, and the two eventually hooked up with former Rivermaya bandmate Francisco \"Bamboo\" Ma\u00f1alac.\""}, {"context": " In 2003, after living in Los Angeles following the Rivermaya tour in America, Ma\u00f1alac returned to the Philippines. Azarcon introduced Ma\u00f1alac to Cruz and Vic Mercado (drums) and together, they formed a band called Bamboo which is named after the grass. Sometime in 2010, Nathan's brother Nick left his band Sinosikat? while Nathan's bandmate Ira Cruz became the new guitarist for Sinosikat?. In January 2011, News had been circulating that Bamboo has allegedly disbanded. DJ KC Montero of Wave 89.1 confirmed the breakup on Wave's The KC Show and via Twitter. Montero clarified that all the members of the band \"have decided to move on,\" and that he does not know why they called it quits. The group has not released an official statement on the issue, according to ABS-CBNNews.com."}, {"context": " Bamboo's lead vocalist Bamboo Ma\u00f1alac finally confirmed the breakup of his band in an official statement posted before midnight of 11 January on the group's website. Three months after the breakup of Bamboo, Azarcon, Cruz and Mercado reunited to form the band \"Hijo\" [pronounced as ee'-ho] (a Spanish word that pertains to a male human offspring or a son). The new band is composed of Nathan Azarcon on vocals and bass, Ira Cruz on guitar, and Vic Mercado on drums. The band also includes Junji Lerma on guitar and Jay-O Orduna on keyboard synthesizer and backing vocals. They performed their first gig at Route 196 on 16 April 2011. In 2012, Orduna was replaced by Wowee Posadas to play keyboards and provide backing vocals. Years after Hijo was formed, other band members left the band and left Azarcon as the sole member. Azarcon posted on his Facebook account that new members will be introduced in 2015. However, in 2015, Azarcon, Cruz, and Lerma reunited sans Posadas while drummer Vic Mercado was replaced with Paolo Manuel but the reunion was short-lived. Nathan posted teasers on Facebook of his new band called \"Disband\" which features Bea Lao of General Luna as the drummer. Nathan then later posted that instead of renaming the band, it will still bear the name Hijo but this time it would be called Hijo 2.0. The band's music influence and genre is described by critics as \"alternative metal\" however the band rather label themselves as \"Kung-Fu rock\"."}, {"context": " On January 9, 2016, Azarcon re-united with his former Rivermaya co-members, Perf de Castro, Mark Escueta and Rico Blanco for a \"secret mini semi-reunion\", following de Castro's gig at 19 East, Taguig City. Months later, Azarcon returned full-time to the band replacing Norby David for the first time since his departure in 2001. Azarcon is a member of the Tau Gamma Phi Triskelion Grand Fraternity. He is married and has kids. Azarcon has been known to use Fender, Music Man and Modulus bass guitars. He now uses Warwick basses exclusively"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Azrin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan H. Azrin (November 26, 1930\u00a0 \u2013 March 29, 2013) was a behavioral modification researcher, psychologist, and university professor. He taught at Southern Illinois University and was the research director of Anna State Hospital between 1958 and 1980. In 1980 he became a professor at Nova Southeastern University, and entered emeritus status at the university in 2010. Azrin was the founder of several research methodologies, including Token Economics, the Community Reinforcement Approach, Family Behavior Therapy, and habit reversal training."}, {"context": " Nathan Azrin was born on November 26, 1930 in Boston, Massachusetts, to parents Harold and Esther. His parents owned and operated a small local grocery store, where Azrin and his siblings worked. Azrin graduated from Boston University in 1951 with a BA and in 1952 with his MA. In 1955 Azrin received his PhD in Psychology under the supervision of BF Skinner. After he completed his PhD, Azrin did two postdoctoral years as a research psychologist, first at the Institute of Living, with Karl Pribram, and then with the US Army Ordinance studying human factors in fatigue. He was then named a professor at Southern Illinois University and research director in the Illinois Department of Mental Health. Between 1958 and 1980, he was the research director at Anna State Hospital. He also spent one year in 1976\u20131977 on sabbatical as a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, in Palo Alto, California. Between 1980 and 2010, as Clinical Director between 1981 and 1986, and then a professor, he worked at Nova Southeastern University. In 2010, he was given emeritus status at the institution. Azrin was also a co-founder and president of the Midwestern Association for Behavior Analysis, and was president of the Association for Behavioral Analysis International. He was a past President of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, and the Florida Association for Behavior Analysis. Azrin is known as one of the founders of the behavior modification school of thought and Applied Behavior Analysis."}, {"context": " Azrin is the co-author of \"Toilet Training in Less Than a Day\", a parenting book that sold three million copies. He also served as the Editor-in-Chief of both the \"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis\" and the \"Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior\". At Anna State Hospital, one of his first initiatives was to try to reverse behaviors that patients had developed after years in psychiatric institutions, such as mutism or a lack of motivation to change from a hospital gown into regular clothes. In order to do this, Azrin together with Teodoro Ayllon developed a bartering system he called \"token economics\", which gave incentives to patients to make behavioral changes, such as putting on their clothes each day. The system was created based upon the work of Azrin's mentor BF Skinner's work in the behavior of lab rats. The two behaviors Azrin sought to improve in patients were self-care activities (such as dressing or grooming) and job activities (such as washing dishes), specifically in adult female psychotic clients. In practice, Azrin provided plastic tokens to patients as a reward for certain behaviors, tokens that could be used for \"gifts\" such as entering the television room or operating the television itself. An increase in the number of tokens provided was given for those that put the most care into their behavior. In 1968 Azrin and Teodoro Ayllon authored the book \"The Token Economy\" summarizing their work and findings."}, {"context": " In the 1970s he worked with Mark Godley and George Hunt on the development of the Community Reinforcement Approach (CRA), applying behavioral therapy to the treatment of alcoholism. After the death of Hunt, Azrin performed the first outpatient treatment trial and first inpatient trial using the principles of CRA. His work also first introduced an abstinence-based goal to CRA, instead of the controlled drinking goal that was being used by other researchers. The goal of CRA was to gradually change drinking-rewarded behaviors to non-drinking rewarded behaviors, including the changing of social networks and transitioning leisure environments. Later studies by Azrin also began to integrate medication-based help into the methodology. Part of his research included the formation of \"job clubs\" as a method of alleviating unemployment problems, providing social support for them to enter the workforce in a way that the individual finds reward in the work they find, in addition to a daily structure of job-searching that replaces previous daily behavior."}, {"context": " Azrin also developed Family Behavior Therapy (FBT) for dealing with juvenile misbehavior and narcotics use, after receiving a 1989 grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and National Institute of Mental Health. The research considers how the behavior of family members can indirectly or purposely reinforce an adolescent's behavior. Any indirect reinforcement is controlled by ensuring all members of a client's family are present for therapy sessions, so that there is a group effort towards behavioral change. Therapy methods included contingency management, communication skills surrounding drug use, problem solving, and efforts to improve family relationships. He co-authored the book Treating Adolescent Substance Abuse Using Family Behavior Therapy: A Step-by-Step Approach with Brad Donohue, basing his work upon his research. Azrin has also done research on cigarette smoking addictions."}, {"context": " In addition to academic works, in 1974 Azrin co-authored the parenting book \"Toilet Training in Less Than a Day\" with Richard M. Foxx, which sold more than three million copies and is available in several dozen languages. The technique in the book was shown to result in a 97% decrease in bathroom accidents during the week after training, following an average of 3.9 hours of \"dry-pants training\". Other tests showed the success rate was closer to 74%. Azrin is also credited for inventing the \"time out\" parenting technique as an alternative to corporal punishment."}, {"context": " Azrin also developed the concepts of \"shaping\" and \"successive approximation\" in his work with the mentally ill; \"Psychology Today\" called Azrin one of the foundational \"behavior shapers\" and credited him with moving the work of Skinner from lab animals into the human realm. These collectively used operant conditioning principles to introduce complex behavior to the developmentally challenged. His research also included lab animal tests, such as incentivizing experiments with pigeons that produced the result that they are more likely to form a behavior if there is some reward involved rather than punishment. Azrin was also involved in early research into autism during the early 1960s as a post-doctoral researcher, as well as later in his career."}, {"context": " Azrin researched the concept of behavior reversal training, also known as habit reversal, in order to treat patients with uncontrollable physical tics, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders like stuttering or Tourette syndrome. In 1977, he published \"Habit Control: Stuttering, Nail Biting, and Other Nervous Habits\", which summarized his research, co-authored with Richard Nunn. In the 1970s, Azrin was involved in the government review of BF Skinner's Special Treatment and Rehabilitative Training research program at the Federal Medical Center for Prisoners in Missouri. He was named as one of three expert witnesses to review the program and findings, and defended the program as in line with the principles of behavioral psychology. Further research of Azrin's include his development of the reciprocity counseling program for marriage counseling, and the concept of \"overcorrection\", which uses positive punishment to correct undesired behaviors and foster desired behaviors."}, {"context": " In 1975 Azrin published research that led to his establishing a system for unemployed persons to assist each other in job finding. One insight from his research with his colleagues was that people on welfare or with disabilities do not possess the family and friends networks that others have to help them with finding jobs. Azrin created \"The Job Club Counselor's Manual\" (1981) which showed how to employ a system utilizing a small group of people who assisted each other in their job search by having the leader provide job search information and using positive behavioral leadership by recording member's positive actions such as number of employer contacts made, applications submitted, and interviews obtained. Participants take ownership of the quest as they share information and encourage each other. Azrin's successful job club concept soon spread throughout North America and continues to help people with obtaining employment."}, {"context": " Azrin served on the editorial boards of seventeen peer-reviewed journals, including the \"Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis\", which he founded. He was also the Editor-in-Chief of the \"Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior\" and a contributor to the \"Encyclopedia of Behavior Modification and Cognitive Behavior Therapy\". As an author he published more than 100 behavioral studies in additional peer-reviewed publications, and eleven books. Azrin's work made him one of the most cited behavioral scientists in the world."}, {"context": " In 1975, Azrin was awarded the Distinguished Contribution for Applications in Psychology Award by the American Psychological Association. In 1992 Azrin received the James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the Association of Psychological Sciences. In 1997 Azrin received the lifetime achievement award from the Association of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. In 2011 he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award for Research Contributions That Have Bettered Humanity from Nova Southeastern University. He is also the namesake of the Nathan H. Azrin Distinguished Contribution to Applied Behavior Analysis Award given annually by the American Psychological Association.  Nathan Azrin died on March 29, 2013 in Pompano Beach, Florida. Azrin had been battling cancer since 2007. He was survived by his wife Victoria Besalel Azrin and four children."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Booth House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan B. Booth House is a historic house at 6080 Main Street in the Putney section of the town of Stratford, Connecticut. It is a post-and-beam construction farmhouse that was built in 1843, following a more typically Greek Revival side hall plan. The wraparound porch dates to the turn of the 20th century, and there is a mid-19th century ell to the rear. A barn on the property also dates to the mid-19th century. The property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. It illustrates a vernacular transition between Greek Revival architecture and Federal architecture styles."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Bradley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ball Bradley (May 28, 1831 \u2013 November 8, 1906) was a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. Bradley was born in Lee, Massachusetts and moved with his parents to Lorain County, Ohio, in 1835 where he attended the common schools. He moved to Wisconsin in 1849 and was employed in a sawmill in the pine region. He returned to Ohio in 1850 and built and operated a sawmill until 1852, when he moved to Lexington, Michigan, and engaged in the manufacture of lumber. He moved to St. Charles, in the Saginaw Valley, in 1855 and engaged in the lumber industry. He purchased a mill in Bay City, which he operated from 1858 to 1864. He also engaged in the salt industry in Bay City, where he was also justice of the peace for three terms, a supervisor one term, an alderman three terms, and the first mayor of Bay City after it obtained its charter in 1865. He was a member of the Michigan State Senate from 1866 to 1868. He also engaged in banking in 1867, becoming vice president of the First National Bank of Bay City.  Bradley was elected as a Republican and the first person to represent Michigan's 8th congressional district to the 43rd and 44th Congresses, serving from March 4, 1873 to March 3, 1877. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1876 and again engaged in the lumber business in Bay City and also was instrumental in establishing the first beet-sugar factory in the state. Bradley died in Bay City and is interred in Elm Lawn Cemetery there."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Coats", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Benjamin Coats (born January 23, 1949) is the Chief Justice of the Colorado Supreme Court. He was appointed to the Supreme Court on April 24, 2000 by Governor Bill Owens. Justice Coats received his B.A. in economics from the University of Colorado in 1971, and his J.D. from the University of Colorado Law School in 1977. Prior to his appointment to the bench, he was the Chief Appellate Deputy District Attorney for the Second Judicial District (Denver County) from 1986 to 2000. He also served in the Appellate Section of the Colorado Attorney General\u2019s Office in the 1970s and 1980s.  Justice Coats has served on numerous Colorado Supreme Court and other committees. Justice Coats became Chief Justice on June 30, 2018. Justice Coats is the 46th member of the Court to be named Chief Justice since Colorado\u2019s statehood in 1876. Justices in Colorado may only serve until the age of 72. Justice Coats will reach the mandatory retirement age in the year 2021."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Devereaux Octagon House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan B. Devereaux Octagon House is an historic octagonal house located at 66425 Eight Mile Road in Northfield Township, Washtenaw County, Michigan. The house is one of only three extant octagonal houses in Washtenaw County, and remains in excellent and near original condition. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. This plot of land was originally owned by David F. and Caroline M. Crandal, who constructed a log cabin on the premises. In 1856, the land was purchased by Nathan and Eunice Devereaux; the couple settled into the already extant cabin. At some point in the 1850s, Nathan Bartlet Devereaux travelled to Ann Arbor to attend a lecture by Orson Squire Fowler, the leading proponent of octagonal houses. Inspired, Devereaux purchased a copy of Fowler's book, \"A Home for All; or the Gravel Wall and Octagon Mode of Building. New, Cheap, Convenient, Superior and Adapted to Rich and Poor.\" In 1864, Devereaux put Fowler's ideas to use and built this house, doing much of the work himself. The resulting building is not a copy of Fowler's plans, but rather Devereaux's own interpretation of Fowler's ideas."}, {"context": " Nathan Bartlet Devereaux died in 1897 and passed the house along to his son John Wilson Devereaux. Nathan Devereaux's grandson John Francis Devereaux lived in the house until 1997. As of 2006, it was still being occupied by descendants of Nathan Bartlet Devereaux. The Devereaux house is a -story, octagonal frame structure with a hipped roof surmounted with an octagonal cupola. The house sits on a fieldstone foundation, and is symmetrically shaped with eight equal sides. A small utility room is attached to the rear of the structure. The house is clad with white asbestos siding and asphalt shingles on the roof, and there is little ornamentation. The basement level is of post-and-beam construction, while the upper sections of the house is of balloon-frame construction."}, {"context": " The front door is slightly askew from the road, through a side of the octagon sited diagonally. The entry is Greek Revival in style with paired thin pilasters on either side of the door, and flanking sidelights above simple paneled aprons. A broad frieze and projecting classical cornice are above the door. The adjacent octagon sides are arranged symmetrically around the entry side, with two tall windows on the lower level and much smaller upper story windows. Interior rooms are generally rectangular in shape, with triangular closet space. The first floor has a kitchen, bedroom, and parlor. Stairs to the second floor arise from the kitchen, and end in a central hall, through which three bedrooms can be accessed. A ladder goes up to the cupola."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Durfee", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathaniel Briggs Durfee (September 29, 1812 \u2013 November 9, 1872) was a U.S. Representative from Rhode Island. Born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, Durfee completed preparatory studies. He engaged in agricultural pursuits and conducted a fruit orchard. He served as member of the Rhode Island House of Representatives for eleven years. Durfee was elected as a candidate of the American Party to the Thirty-fourth Congress and as a Republican to the Thirty-fifth Congress (March 4, 1855 \u2013 March 3, 1859). He resumed his former pursuits.  He was serving as county clerk at the time of his death in Tiverton, Rhode Island, on November 9, 1872. He was interred in the family burial ground near Tiverton, Rhode Island."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Hannum", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan B. Hannum (1851\u20131920) was a North Dakota public servant and politician with the Republican Party who served as the North Dakota State Auditor from 1897 to 1898. After serving just one term, he did not seek re-election to the office in 1898."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Lattin Farm", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan B. Lattin Farm is a historic farm at 22 Walker Hill Road in Newtown, Connecticut. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990. It consists of of land historically associated with the farmstead, which includes a c. 1750 farmhouse, a period icehouse, a 20th-century reproduction of an older barn, and the foundational remnants of other outbuildings. The farmhouse is a three-bay Colonial with a side-gable roof and a large central chimney, and is built on a fieldstone foundation. The house lacked modern amenities, including plumbing and electricity, until 1978. The property was farmed until about 1897, after which it was used as a summer residence."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Scott", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bay Scott (December 18, 1842January 2, 1924) was a United States Senator from West Virginia. Born near Quaker City, Ohio, he attended the common schools and engaged in mining near Colorado Springs, Colorado from 1859 to 1862. During the Civil War, he entered the Union Army in 1863 as a corporal and was appointed sergeant in 1864, promoted to regimental commissary sergeant in 1865, and mustered out in 1865. After the war, he engaged in the manufacture of glass in Wheeling, West Virginia and also engaged in banking. He was a member and president of the city council from 1881 to 1883. From 1883 to 1890, he was a member of the West Virginia Senate and, in 1888, he was a member of the Republican National Committee."}, {"context": " Scott was appointed Commissioner of Internal Revenue by President William McKinley in 1898, and served until February 1899, when he resigned to become a U.S. Senator; he had been elected as a Republican in 1899 and was reelected in 1905, serving from March 4, 1899 to March 3, 1911. He was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination. While in the Senate, he was chairman of the Committee on Mines and Mining (Fifty-seventh through Fifty-ninth Congresses) and a member of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds (Fifty-ninth through Sixty-first Congresses). Scott was appointed a member of the Lincoln Memorial Commission in 1911 and engaged in banking in Washington, D.C. until his death in 1924."}, {"context": " On August 3, 1918, when Scott and his family were at their home, they were exposed to a cloud of toxic lewisite after an accident occurred at a nearby US army chemical weapons research facility. Scott and his family immediately entered the house, closed all the windows and phoned for help. The senator\u2019s throat and eyes were burned and his face was blistered. His quick action of entering the house and closing the windows probably saved his family\u2019s life. The senator complained vigorously, prompting an official investigation of the accident.  He died on January 2, 1924. His remains were cremated and the ashes deposited in a mausoleum in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C. Retrieved on 2008-10-18"}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Spingold", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Spingold (1886\u20131958) was a motion picture executive and a leading administrator in the game of contract bridge. Born in Chicago, Spingold started as a newspaper reporter but moved to New York in the early 1930s, where his career in the motion picture business with Columbia Pictures saw him rise to the board of directors in 1940 and vice president of the company in 1954. He and his wife, Frances, were patrons of the arts and had a significant art collection. Active in contract bridge from its earliest days, he donated the Spingold Trophy in 1934 for the World Championship Masters Team-of-Four; the trophy is still among the most prized achievements in the game. Spingold was named American Bridge League (ABL) honorary member in 1936 and became president of the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) in 1938, having been key to its creation by the merger of the ABL and the United States Bridge Association (USBA) the previous year. On the ACBL board of governors, its board of directors and also president of the Cavendish Club in New York, he was regarded as one of the most influential men in contract bridge administration in the 1930s and 1940s."}]}, {"title": "Nathan B. Young", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Benjamin Young (September 15, 1862\u2014July 19, 1933) was an African-American educator who helped move forward black education in the early 20th century. Born a slave in Alabama, Young later became an educator after Booker T. Washington, who witnessed Young\u2019s skills in debating, invited him to teach at the Tuskegee Institute. Following his career as a teacher, Young later became a president of two major universities, Florida A&M University and Lincoln University. He and Henry Lee De Forest, the president of Talladega College, started a campaign to help improve education for the African American community."}, {"context": " Nathan B. Young was born a slave in Chatham, Virginia. His mother is Susan Smith, also born a slave in the South. Before the Civil War started she gave birth to Nathan. Then they were sold off to a plantation overseer who tried to dodge the draft. Smith started to figure out that there was an underlying reason to dodge the draft, which was to keep them enslaved. His mother created a plot to escape slavery and run away to Tuscaloosa. Young and those who knew Young acknowledged the strength of his mother\u2019s actions. Even Young\u2019s stepfather was a strong individual. He took up firearms to ward of the local Ku Klux Klan. Many people like, Antonio F Holland believe that his mother and stepfather, Frank Young helped shape him into the strong figure that he was."}, {"context": " After enrolling in a small school which was operated by a white baptist minister in Tuscaloosa, Young attended Stillman College for three months. Following his work at this college, Young attended Talladega College where he received a classical education in the teacher-training branch. At Talladega, he met Henry Lee De Forest who later became one of his closest allies. Once he decided that his passion was to teach, he enrolled in Oberlin College where he obtained a bachelor\u2019s and master's degree."}, {"context": " After his formal education, Young vigorously pursued a career in teaching. He first began teaching in the 1880s during his time at Talladega, where he taught in rural areas of Alabama during the summer. From 1892 to 1897, he was invited to serve as the head of Tuskegee Institute\u2019s academic department at by Booker T. Washington. Soon after, he was employed at Georgia State Industrial College as the Director of Teacher Training. Young also served as the President of Florida A&M University in 1901. Afterwards, he became the President of Lincoln University."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baesel", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Baesel (born April 7, 1974 in La Palma, California) is an American actor. Baesel graduated from the Juilliard School of Drama. He has appeared in various national television spots and guest starred in \"The District\" and CBS's \"Cold Case\". He had a recurring role on ABC's science fiction drama Shaun Cassidy's \"Invasion\", playing the one-armed deputy Lewis Sirk. Baesel is a founding member of NY-based \"Theater Mitu\" and he performs regularly for South Coast Repertory. He also starred in the horror movie \"\" and in the post-apocalyptic film \"20 Years After\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baggaley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Baggaley (born 6 December 1975 in Byron Bay, New South Wales) is an Australian sprint canoeist and surfski champion. He is a three-times world champion in the K-1 500 m events and has also won two Olympic silver medals. His career has been tarnished by drug scandals. He made his international debut for Australia in 1997, initially competing in the K-2. In 1999 he switched to the K-1 and reached the K-1 500m semifinals at Sydney in 2000. He became one of the top stars in the sport, winning three consecutive K-1 500 m world championships (2002, 2003, 2005). At the Athens Olympics Baggaley won the silver medal in the K-1 500 m, edged out by Canadian Adam van Koeverden. In the K-2 race he partnered with Clint Robinson to another silver medal. He was voted the Australian Institute of Sport\u2019s Athlete of the Year in 2004. Baggeley returned to win in the K-1 500 m event at Zagreb in 2005 prior to being banned for 24 months for steroid use."}, {"context": " In September 2005 Baggaley tested positive for banned steroids (stanozolol and methandienone). Baggaley was subsequently banned for 15 months by Australian Canoeing. The suspension was extended to two years by the International Canoe Federation, with authorities saying they did not consider swigging his brother's steroid-laced orange juice to be an extenuating circumstance. Baggaley said that he had been drug-tested at least fifty times in his career and had always tested negative. At the time Baggaley announced he wanted to return to kayaking after serving his suspension, with the comment that after 10 years of competition \"I could seriously do with the rest.\" However the Australian Canoe Federation rejected a reinstatement application from Baggaley in October 2007 after his arrest with hundreds of ecstasy tablets earlier that same year."}, {"context": " In February 2007 police had stopped Baggaley and a companion in Mermaid Waters, Gold Coast, Queensland and on searching their car they found 762 ecstasy tablets, cannabis and cash. Baggaley was arrested again in November 2007 and jailed, facing more drug charges of manufacture and dealing ectasy. In February 2009, Baggaley pleaded guilty to manufacturing 1,509 tablets of the drug MDMA and to two counts of supplying a prohibited drug, and was due to be sentenced in March. His younger brother Dru, arrested with Nathan, pleaded guilty to manufacturing 13,500 tablets of MDMA and one count of supply. He was sentenced to nine years in jail with a non-parole period of 5 years."}, {"context": " Additionally in July 2007, Nathan Baggaley was arrested after allegedly stealing a surf ski from the Byron Bay Surf Club. He pleaded guilty to theft and was placed on a six-month good behaviour bond and ordered to pay $70 court costs. In June 2010 Baggaley was charged with possession of a prescribed restricted substance, being steroids, in jail at the Cessnock Correctional Centre. He was subsequently moved to the Metropolitan Remand and Reception Centre. On 20 November 2011, Baggaley was released from the Grafton Correctional Centre, having served his custodial sentence."}, {"context": " In November 2013, Baggaley was arrested by Australian Federal Police and charged with various counts of conspiracy to import a commercial quantity of a border-controlled drug into Australia, conspiracy to manufacture and produce a prohibited drug (2C-B a psychedelic drug), the manufacture and production of a prohibited drug and one count of supplying a large commercial quantity of a prohibited drug. He was remanded in custody and officially refused bail. In February 2015 Baggaley pleaded guilty to \"drug manufacturing and conspiracy charges\". In December he was sentenced by Judge Leonie Flannery to a non-parole period of two years and three months.  In August 2018, Baggaley's brother, Dru Anthony Baggaley, was arrested in connection with the attempted importation of 600kgs of cocaine."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bailey", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bailey (died 27 June 1742), was an English philologist and lexicographer. He was the author of several dictionaries, including his \"Universal Etymological Dictionary\", which appeared in some 30 editions between 1721 and 1802. Bailey's \"Dictionarium Britannicum\" (1730 and 1736) was the primary resource mined by Samuel Johnson for his \"Dictionary of the English Language\" (1755). Bailey was a Seventh Day Baptist, admitted 1691 to a congregation in Whitechapel, London. He was probably excluded from the congregation by 1718. Later he had a school at Stepney. William Thomas Whitley attributes to him a degree of LL.D."}, {"context": " Bailey, with John Kersey the younger, was a pioneer of English lexicography, and changed the scope of dictionaries of the language. Greater comprehensivity became the common ambition. Up to the early eighteenth century, English dictionaries had generally focused on \"hard words\" and their explanation, for example those of Thomas Blount and Edward Phillips in the generation before. With a change of attention, to include more commonplace words and those not of direct interest to scholars, the number of headwords in English dictionaries increased spectacularly. Innovations were in the areas of common words, dialect, technical terms, and vulgarities. Thomas Chatterton, the literary forger, also obtained many sham-antique words from reading Bailey and Kersey."}, {"context": " Bailey's \"An Universal Etymological English Dictionary\", from its publication in 1721, became the most popular English dictionary of the 18th century, and went through nearly thirty editions. It was a successor to Kersey's \"A New English Dictionary\" (1702), and drew on it. A supplementary volume of his dictionary appeared in 1727, and in 1730 a folio edition, the \"Dictionarium Britannicum\" containing many technical terms. Bailey had collaborators, for example John Martyn who worked on botanical terms in 1725."}, {"context": " Samuel Johnson made an interleaved copy the foundation of his own \"Johnson's Dictionary\". The 1755 edition of Bailey's dictionary bore the name of Joseph Nicol Scott also; it was published years after Bailey's death, but months only after Johnson's dictionary appeared. Now often known as the \"Scott-Bailey\" or \"Bailey-Scott\" dictionary, it contained relatively slight revisions by Scott, but massive plagiarism from Johnson's work. A twentieth-century lexicographer, Philip Babcock Gove, attacked it retrospectively on those grounds. In all, thirty editions of the dictionary appeared, the last at Glasgow in 1802, in reprints and versions by different booksellers."}, {"context": " Bailey's dictionary was also the basis of English-German dictionaries. These included those edited by Theodor Arnold (3rd edition, 1761), Anton Ernst Klausing (8th edition, 1792), and Johann Anton Fahrenkr\u00fcger (11th edition, 1810). Bailey also published a spelling-book in 1726; 'All the Familiar Colloquies of Erasmus Translated,' 1733, of which a new edition appeared in 1878; 'The Antiquities of London and Westminster,' 1726; 'Dictionarium Domesticum,' 1736 (which was also a cookbook on recipes, including fried chicken); Selections from Ovid and Ph\u00e6drus; and 'English and Latin Exercises.' In 1883 appeared 'English Dialect Words of the Eighteenth Century as shown in the . . . Dictionary of N. Bailey', with an introduction by W. E. A. Axon (English Dialect Society), giving biographical and bibliographical details."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bailey (gymnast)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bailey (born 24 July 1993) is a British trampoline gymnast. He competed in the trampoline competition at the 2016 Summer Olympics, where he finished in 9th place."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baker", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Luke Baker (born 23 April 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a central defender for Championship club Bristol City . Baker is a product of the Aston Villa Academy and had loan spells at Lincoln City and Millwall early in his career, recently he spent a full season at Bristol City. He has represented England at U19, U20, and U21 levels. Baker signed for Aston Villa as a 13-year-old in 2004, and rose through the ranks at the club, making his Academy debut in 2007. He was a pivotal figure in the centre of defence alongside Ciaran Clark in the 2007\u201308 season, as Villa clinched the national title, defeating Manchester City . Baker finished the season with 1 goal from 23 appearances for the Academy team, and 2 goals from 7 appearances for the Reserves, who also tasted success by clinching the Premier Reserve League South."}, {"context": " The defender progressed to the first-team in the summer of 2008 by making the squad for the tour of Switzerland, of which Baker played in both matches against FC Wil and FC Z\u00fcrich. In July 2008, Baker was named on the bench for the second leg of the UEFA Intertoto Cup tie against Odense Boldklub. A week later he was again named on the bench, this time for the trip to Icelandic side Fimleikaf\u00e9lag Hafnarfjar\u00f0ar in the Second qualifying round of the UEFA Cup. On 23 October 2009, Baker signed for Lincoln City on a month-long loan deal alongside fellow defender Eric Lichaj. Lincoln City manager and former Aston Villa striker Chris Sutton handed Baker his league debut at Sincil Bank on 24 October 2009, in a 0\u20130 draw with Torquay United. Baker impressed at Lincoln, and his loan deal was eventually extended to the end of the 2009\u201310 season."}, {"context": " Baker was banned from attending Aston Villa's League Cup final against Manchester United at Wembley Stadium on 28 February 2010 after being caught trying to sell his allocation of tickets via the social networking website Facebook. The 18-year-old defender attempted to sell five tickets at a price of \u00a3200 each, but later said that he regretted his actions. Baker was brought in to the Aston Villa squad for the derby match against Birmingham City on 16 January 2011. He was an unused substitute as Villa drew 1\u20131. Baker made his starting debut against Wigan Athletic on 25 January 2011 at DW Stadium. On 29 January 2011, his second ever start, Baker gained an assist for the third goal but was then sent off for a dangerous tackle in an FA Cup Fourth Round tie against Blackburn Rovers. On 26 February, Baker made his second league start for Villa against Blackburn Rovers, but went off injured in the first half after a collision with goal keeper Paul Robinson. Villa announced on 2 June 2011 that Baker had signed a new three-year contract with the club."}, {"context": " On 22 November he joined Millwall on a one-month loan deal. He was assigned the squad number 27 and made his debut four days later, helping Millwall keep a clean sheet against Crystal Palace. He made six league appearances before his loan spell ended in December with a 1\u20130 win against Portsmouth on 26 December being his last game. He returned to Villa and made his first appearance of the season coming on as a late sub for Richard Dunne against Manchester City on 12 February. During the 2012\u201313 season, Baker established himself as a centre back with great aerial ability. Due to an injury to Ron Vlaar, Baker was partnered with fellow academy graduate Ciaran Clark and impressed during a difficult spell where Villa conceded lots of goals. On occasion he also played at left back in the absence of Joe Bennett. On 9 March, manager Paul Lambert praised his maturity for produing another outstanding performance after slicing the ball into his own net to give Reading a first-half lead. In May 2013 Baker signed a new three-year deal with Aston Villa which would keep him there until 2016."}, {"context": " Baker made his first appearance against Arsenal, before getting subbed off due to injury in the 17th minute. He missed the next games against Chelsea, Liverpool and Newcastle before making his return to the squad as an unused substitute against Norwich. He made his full return starting at Villa Park in a dramatic 3\u20132 win over Manchester City, before being dropped to the bench against Hull. After that, Baker and Vlaar were Paul Lambert's preferred defensive partnership, however, due to Vlaar's constant injury problems, Baker was often partnered with fellow academy graduate, Ciaran Clark"}, {"context": " Although Baker was a regular throughout the 2013\u201314 season, Baker was an unused substitute against Villa's opening fixture, a 1\u20130 Victory against Stoke. He made his first appearance of the season as an 82' minute substitution for Aly Cissokho. After injury ruled captain, Ron Vlaar out, Baker made his first start against Liverpool, putting in a great performance alongside Philippe Senderos, keeping a clean sheet in a 1\u20130 victory. He was set to start against Arsenal, however, like many of his teammates suffered from an illness and was left out of the squad. Baker went on to start against Chelsea, Manchester City and Everton. He wasn't included in the squad against Queens Park Rangers, before starting against Spurs. On 8 November 2014, during the 0\u20130 draw against West Ham United, Baker picked up a knee injury. After a long lay off, Baker was an unused substitute Leicester before starting against Liverpool on 17 January 2015."}, {"context": " On 31 July 2015, Baker ended transfer speculation when he signed a new four-year contract with the club. On 1 September 2015, Baker joined Bristol City on a season-long loan. Following Aston Villa's relegation from the Premier League, Baker returned to Aston Villa. Under Roberto Di Matteo, Baker often found himself behind the club's new arrivals Tommy Elphick and James Chester, being used as a substitute. Following an injury to Elphick, and the replacement of Matteo for Steve Bruce, Baker formed an impressive partnership with Chester. On 19 November, Baker scored his first goal for Aston Villa against Brighton and Hove Albion, heading in an Albert Adomah delivery. The match ended 1\u20131."}, {"context": " On 28 July 2017, Baker joined Bristol City for an undisclosed fee on a four-year deal. Baker has represented England at under-19, under-20 and under-21 level. He made his debut for the under-19 side on 18 November 2008 as they beat Germany 1\u20130. He made 9 appearances for the under-19's and was part of the England squad at the 2011 under-20 World Cup, playing in all of England's games at the tournament. He made his debut for the under-21 squad in 2011 against Iceland in Preston. His other two caps came in wins against Israel and Norway during 2013 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship qualification."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ball", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Nate\" Ball is an American mechanical engineer, entrepreneur, TV host, children's author, pole vaulter, and beatboxer. He was born May 13, 1983 and grew up in Newport, Oregon. He moved to Boston in 2001 to attend Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he studied mechanical engineering and earned two degrees: a Bachelor of Science. (2005) and a Master of Science (2007). Ball has served as a host on the PBS Kids show \"Design Squad\" since it first aired in 2007. Ball has appeared in an episode of \"MythBusters\", a History Channel special on Batman technology, in an insurance advertisement, and in a \"Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman\" season 4 episode. Ball was also featured in the \"Nova\" episode \"The Secret Life of Scientists and Engineers.\" He is the author of the \"Alien in my Pocket\" series of science-adventure chapter books for kids, published by HarperCollins Children's."}, {"context": " In 2005 he co-founded a business to develop the Atlas Powered Ascender, a tool he helped create that enables \"reverse rappelling\" up vertical surfaces at high speed. He was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize in 2007 for his work on the Atlas Powered Ascender, an improved needle-free jet injector system, and his work in engineering outreach with children. Ball is a two-time NCAA All-American pole-vaulter with a personal record of 16' 8 \u00be\"., and is listed as the co-inventor on six patent applications."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ball (basketball)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ball (born February 15, 1983) is an American former professional basketball player. He played college basketball for Charleston Cougars"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ballard", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ballard is an American strategist and attorney. He was the communications director for the governor-elect of California, Gavin Newsom, when Newsom was the 42nd mayor of San Francisco. He is a longtime friend and advisor to Newsom. He is a member of the board of directors of The Representation Project, Jennifer Siebel Newsom's nonprofit organization. Ballard worked with the 43rd mayor of San Francisco, Ed Lee. He was an advisor to Mark Farrell, the 44th mayor of San Francisco. Ballard has worked as a spokesman for the Democratic National Committee, the California Labor Federation, AFL\u2013CIO, Secretary of State John Kerry, and Wesley Clark. Ballard was also a spokesman for the Golden State Warriors and was a spokesman for the Super Bowl 50 host committee."}, {"context": " In 2000, Ballard was a deputy city attorney and spokesman for the city attorney in San Francisco. He served alongside Kamala Harris, now a U.S. Senator. Ballard was a spokesman for the California Democratic Party in 2002. He was also a spokesman for New Hampshire Senate President Beverly Hollingworth's campaign for governor of New Hampshire. In 2003, Ballard was the spokesman for the California Labor Federation, AFL\u2013CIO, during the recall of Governor Gray Davis. During the 2004 U.S. presidential campaign, Ballard was a spokesman for Wesley Clark during the primaries. Later in 2004, Ballard was a spokesman for U.S. Senator John Kerry's presidential campaign in California. In 2006, Ballard was U.S. Congresswoman Jackie Speier's spokesman when she campaigned for lieutenant governor of California."}, {"context": " From 2007-2010, Ballard was the communications director for San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom. He worked for a coalition of labor unions against a 2010 pension measure in San Francisco. In 2010, Ballard was Rep. Jackie Speier's spokesman when she weighed a run for attorney general in California. In 2010, Burson-Marsteller, a global public relations and communications consultancy, appointed Ballard as managing director. He later resigned from the post. In 2011, Ballard worked for a coalition including labor unions, civic leader Warren Hellman, and San Francisco Mayor Ed Lee to pass labor-backed reforms against a rival measure funded by Sir Michael Moritz. Also in 2011, around the time of the Occupy Oakland protests, Ballard briefly served as a crisis manager for Oakland Mayor Jean Quan, following the resignation of the city's police chief. At that time, he was described as having \"lots of law enforcement clients\"."}, {"context": " In 2012, Ballard was the spokesman for Proposition 38, a California tax measure for public education. He was also the spokesman for the Coalition for Humane and Ethical Farming Standards, made up of more than 100 chefs in California seeking to lift the state's ban on foie gras at the time. Ballard was the spokesman for the union representing the San Francisco Symphony musicians during the 2013 strike. In 2013, Ballard was the spokesperson for San Francisco's bid to host the 2016 Super Bowl and the team spokesperson for the Golden State Warriors new arena project. In 2014, he served as the spokesman for the Koret Foundation during its dispute with the founder's widow. Ballard was also a spokesman for the San Francisco Bay Area's bid for the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games."}, {"context": " In 2016, the San Francisco Police Officers Association hired Ballard for what was described as a \"counterattack\" against police reform attempts following the controversial killing of Mario Woods by officers and concerns about racism in the city's police department. Ballard was criticized for using exaggerated crime figures in the union's campaign against reform proponent George Gasc\u00f3n, and acknowledged having misread the rates. Ballard stepped down from the union to avoid a conflict of interest while serving as an advisor to San Francisco Mayor Mark Farrell."}, {"context": " In 2016, Ballard represented Burma Superstar, a restaurant chain that was sued for allegations of employee mistreatment. In 2016 he was also the spokesman for Dede Wilsey during her campaign to remain the head of the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. In 2017, Ballard worked for Oakland Mayor Libby Schaaf in the aftermath of the Ghost Ship warehouse fire that killed 36 people. Ballard's PR agency, The Press Shop, was criticized for its role in managing public relations related to the Ghost Ship fire.  In 2018, Ballard was a spokesman for Anthony Levandowski, a central figure in a legal battle between Waymo and Uber was called the \"tech trial of the century.\" Ballard was a consultant to angel investor Ron Conway. Ballard is allied with U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein. In December 2016, Ballard was profiled in \"San Francisco\"'s \"The Power Issue.\" He was recognized as one of San Francisco's \"preeminent media whisperers\" with \"a junkyard dog persona\"."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ballentine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ballentine (born December 10, 1970) is a Republican member of the South Carolina House of Representatives, United States, representing the House District 71 since 2005. Nathan was born in Richland County and, for almost two decades, has worked, lived, and raise his family in the community named after his ancestors. Nathan and his wife Karen are involved in Riverland Hills Baptist Church. He has a step-daughter, Sarah Katherine, son Jonathan Carroll, Jr., and daughter Emma Logan. Before his election to the South Carolina House of Representatives in 2004, Nathan had been involved with and supported community groups such as the Lake Murray/Irmo Rotary, home owners associations, the District Five Government Relations Committee, the Community Leadership Council and the Northwest YMCA Advisory Council. He was a member of Leadership Columbia and the University of South Carolina Young Alumni Council and the University's Richland/Lexington Alumni Council. Nathan has worked for the same company since graduating from the University of South Carolina in December 1992 and is Vice President and Branch Manager for Wells Fargo Home Mortgage in Columbia, South Carolina."}, {"context": " On June 8, 2004, Nathan defeated the 16-year incumbent, Rick Quinn,who served as the House Majority Leader. After the upset in the Republican primary, the Ballentine easily defeated the Green Party candidate in November 2004 general election. Ballentine was elected Vice Chairman of the Medical, Military, Public and Municipal Affairs committee during his freshman year (2005). He worked to get the first bill he filed to become law. In three months, H.3741 became law and the Palmetto State (and senior citizens in particular) soon benefitted from an increased focus on geriatric medicine."}, {"context": " In just his 2nd year in office, Nathan again focused on healthcare; this time focusing on autistic children. Even though H.4351 ultimately died in the Senate; Nathan\u2019s hard work enabled similar legislation to pass the following year. Another re-election (2007\u20132008) provided an opportunity to push fiscal issues that led to the passage of H.3008 (reduced tax burden on non-profits) and a House Rule change banning hidden earmarks. During 2009 and 2010, Nathan was the chief cosponsor, with then-Representative Nikki Haley, pushing for more accountability with On-The-Record Voting. That bill ultimately died in the Senate; but not before the House made a rule change and passed the bill with no dissenting votes. In 2011 at the request of Governor Haley, Nathan became lead sponsor for the On-The-Record Voting Bill and is hopeful for passage of one of the Governor's top issues to improve accountability in the SC General Assembly."}, {"context": " In the 2010 session, Nathan\u2019s Campaign Finance Disclosure Bill became law. The bill requires every elected official (from school board, to county office holders, etc.) to file their campaign disclosure report on-line. During his career in the South Carolina General Assembly, Ballentine has served on the Education and Public Works Committee, the House Ethics Committee, the Joint Transportation Review Screening Committee, and has been named a Friend of the Taxpayer and Taxpayer Hero every year he has served in Columbia. He receives high grades from Business and Industry groups as well as the SC Club for Growth and the NRA.  Nathan is the Chairman of the Regulations Subcommittee in the House Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environmental Affairs Committee. Nathan does not keep his State House salary, donating it to community groups and organizations. In 2006, he designated funds for scholarships for deserving seniors. In his six years in office he has returned over $40,000 to his community."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Ballingrud", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Ballingrud (born December 31, 1970) is an American writer of horror and dark fantasy fiction. His novella, \"The Visible Filth\", is being adapted into a feature film by Babak Anvari, with Annapurna Pictures distributing. Ballingrud's stories have received critical acclaim and were nominated for multiple awards."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bangs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bangs (May 2, 1778\u00a0\u2013 May 3, 1862) was an American Christian theologian in the Methodist tradition and influential leader in the Methodist Episcopal Church prior to the 1860s. Born in Stratford, Connecticut, he received a limited education, taught school, and in 1799 went to Upper Canada in search of work as either a teacher or a land-surveyor. He was converted to Methodism in 1800 and worked for eight years as an itinerant preacher in the wilderness of the Canadian provinces, serving communities in the areas of Kingston, York, London, Niagara, and Montreal. Of particular note is his responsibility for organizing the first camp meeting in Upper Canada in the fall of 1805. That same year, he married Canadian Mary Bolton and, after a brief stint in Lower Canada, was transferred back to the United States in 1808, first in Albany and then New York in 1810. In 1812, Bangs was made the Presiding Elder of the Lower Canada District, also riding the Montreal Circuit. Bangs was esteemed within the church, and could have requested and received a much more pleasant assignment. However, with war brewing between Britain and America, few riders would volunteer for assignment to Canada, and Bishop Asbury would not assign non-volunteers. Bangs volunteered to be assigned to Canada, as there was a desperate need for volunteers. The war prevented Bangs from reaching his assignment, however, and Bangs instead was made Presiding Elder of the Croton Circuit in Delaware, while Thomas Burch went to the Montreal Circuit instead. In subsequent years, he took a prominent part in the councils of the church."}, {"context": " In 1820, he was transferred from a pastorate in New York to become the Senior Book Agent of the Methodist Book Concern. Although the Concern was first founded in 1798 under John Dickins, it was under Bangs's tenure that the establishment was provided with its first press, bindery, official premises, and weekly newspaper. All of this helped Bangs to pay off the Concern's debts while he also served as the first editor of the \"Methodist Magazine\". In 1828 he was appointed editor of the \"Christian Advocate\" (though he had been functioning as its unofficial editor since its inception in 1826). When the \"Methodist Quarterly Review\" replaced the \"Methodist Magazine\" in 1832, the General Conference continued Bangs in the editorship."}, {"context": " Bangs was the principal founder and secretary of the Methodist missionary society. When appointed secretary of the missionary society in 1836, he devoted his chief energies to its service, until appointed president of the Wesleyan University, at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1841. Surprisingly, that proved to be a disappointment to everyone and in 1842 Bangs resumed pastoral work in New York, and in 1852 retired and employed himself during his remaining years chiefly in literary labors. Although his career was an illustrious one, Bangs's reputation suffered badly when he failed to support Methodist abolitionists at the General Conference of 1844. Abel Stevens published a lengthy biography of Bangs one year after his death in 1862."}, {"context": " Bangs defended Arminianism against the Calvinism of his day. He was a strong believer of prevenient grace but not at the expense of total depravity. He argued that because of grace, humankind does have the ability to respond to God. He also opposed the antinomianism practiced by some rival members of the New Light Baptist community. His most important work was a \"History of the Methodist Episcopal Church from its Origin in 1776 to the General Conference of 1840\" (4 volumes, New York, 1839\u201342). His other published works were a volume directed against \"Christianism\", a new sect in New England (1809); \"Errors of Hopkinsianism\" (1815); \"Predestination Examined\" (1817); \"Reformer Reformed\" (1818); \"Methodist Episcopacy\" (1820); \"Letters to Young Ministers of the Gospel\" (1826); \"Life of the Rev. Freeborn Garrettson\" (1829); \"Authentic History of the Missions Under the Care of the Methodist Episcopal Church\" (1832); \"The Original Church of Christ\" (1836); \"Essay on Emancipation\" (1848); \"State and Responsibilities of the Methodist Episcopal Church\" (1850); \"Letters on Sanctification\" (1851); a \"Life of Arminius\"; \"Scriptural Vindication of the Orders and Powers of the Ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church\"; and numerous sermons.  Biography Sources Bibliography"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Banks", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Banks (April 13, 1868 \u2013 January 24, 1953) was an American entomologist noted for his work on Neuroptera, Megaloptera, Hymenoptera, and Acarina (mites). He started work on mites in 1880 with the USDA. In 1915 he authored the first comprehensive English handbook on mites: \"A Treatise on the Acarina, Or Mites\" (Smithsonian Institution, Proceedings Of The United States National Museum, 1905, 114 pages). Banks left the USDA in 1916 to work at the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) where he did further work on Hymenoptera, Arachnida and Neuroptera. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1922."}, {"context": " In 1924, he spent about two months in Panama, through kindness of Dr. Thomas Barbour and in company with Dr. W.M. Wheeler. Between mid June and mid August they divided time between forested regions on Barro Colorado Island and more open habitat at various points along the railroad in the vicinity of Panama City (See Banks, 1929 \"Spiders of Panama\" for details). He authored more than 440 technical works over the years 1890 to 1951. He was married to Mary A. Lu Gar and they had eight children. (One son was named Gilbert, but no other offspring are known by name.)"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barksdale", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barksdale (1961 \u2013 February 13, 2016) was the infamous Baltimore, MD drug dealer dramatized in the HBO series The Wire, but the extent to which any of the show\u2019s characters or plot lines are based on his life is disputed. His life is the subject of the unreleased docudrama \"Baltimore Chronicles: Legends of the Unwired\", which purports to be the true story behind \"The Wire\". He was in the early stages of writing his autobiography at the time of his death. Barksdale was raised in the Lexington Terrace projects in Baltimore. He was involved in boxing, as were other family members. When he was young, a man ran over Barksdale\u2019s leg with his truck after Barksdale stole from the man. As a result, Barksdale underwent an amputation and subsequently became addicted to opiates."}, {"context": " Barksdale was a drug dealer in West Baltimore who purportedly survived twenty-one gunshots, some of which were fired while Barksdale was in hospital after a prior, failed murder attempt. In 1986, Barksdale was sentenced to fifteen years in state prison for battery. In 2003, he was acquitted of a federal charge of being a felon with a gun. Barksdale\u2019s name appeared in the Baltimore Sun's 1987 series \"Easy Money: Anatomy of a Drug Empire\", the author of which was David Simon, who went on to be the creator, executive producer, and head writer of \"The Wire\". In the newspaper series, which focuses on the criminal career of Melvin Williams, Simon depicts Barksdale as a ruthless killer and a drug addict. Simon also writes that Barksdale once tortured three people in the Baltimore projects and that his battery conviction was related to the torture incident."}, {"context": " \"Baltimore Chronicles: Legends of the Unwired\" is the unreleased, low-budget docudrama that is based on Barksdale\u2019s life. It is directed by Bruce Brown, and Drew Berry is the writer and producer. Kenneth A. Jackson is the executive producer, and singer Troy May of The Manhattans is the narrator. \"Legends of the Unwired\" consists of dramatizations of alleged events in Barksdale\u2019s criminal career, interviews with his family and friends, and interviews of Barksdale by actor Wood Harris, who plays drug kingpin Avon Barksdale on \"The Wire\"."}, {"context": " Simon denies that Nathan Barksdale or any other individual is the basis for any specific character in \"The Wire\". A major point of contention is Barksdale\u2019s claim that his middle name is Avon. According to Simon, this name was not associated with Barksdale in any official document, and Barksdale has failed to produce any documentary evidence of having any middle name. However, in his director's commentary to the first episode of The Wire, Simon says: \"We tend to mix the names up \u2026 but it\u2019s our kind of back-handed homage to the reality of West Baltimore. There really was a Nathan Bodie Barksdale. We split that up. There\u2019s a Bodie character in this tale, there\u2019s an Avon Barksdale character. The Barksdale family was famous in their day in West Baltimore back in the '80s for their endeavors in the projects. That\u2019s how we\u2019re playing it. They\u2019re not based on real people, individually, but a character might be a composite...\""}, {"context": " Some connections between \"The Wire\" and Simon\u2019s reporting on Barksdale, however, are evident. In addition to the name and the boxing background, for example, in \"Easy Money\", Simon avers that Marlow Bates and Timmirror Stanfield were rivals of Barksdale. In \"The Wire\", Marlo Stanfield becomes a major rival of Avon Barksdale who eventually takes over the Baltimore drug trade. However, Nathan Barksdale claims that Bates is a close friend of his. Barksdale served time at a Federal Correctional Complex in North Carolina. He died at a prison in Butner, North Carolina in 2016 at the age of 54."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barley is a British Channel 4 television sitcom written by Charlie Brooker and Chris Morris, starring Nicholas Burns, Julian Barratt, Claire Keelan, Richard Ayoade, Ben Whishaw, Rhys Thomas and Charlie Condou. The series of six weekly episodes began broadcasting on 11 February 2005 on Channel 4. Described by his creator as a \"meaningless strutting cadaver-in-waiting\", the character originated on Brooker's TVGoHome \u2013 a website parodying television listings \u2013 as the focus of a fly-on-the-wall documentary called \"Cunt\"."}, {"context": " Nathan Barley, played by Nicholas Burns, is a webmaster, guerrilla filmmaker, screenwriter, DJ and in his own words, a \"self-facilitating media node\". Whilst desperate to convince himself and others that he is the epitome of urban cool, Nathan is secretly terrified he might not be, which is why he reads \"Sugar Ape\" magazine, his bible of cool. \"Sugar Ape\" has been described as a spoof of \"Dazed & Confused\" and \"Vice\", although Brooker has stated that \"the SugarApe \"Vice\" issue from Ep5 wasn't an assault on \"Vice\" magazine I think it just (understandably) ended up looking that way\"."}, {"context": " The website consists of stupid pranks caught on camera, photos of him with attractive women and famous figures (some of them digitally edited to insert himself), and photos of him standing on street corners in major cities around the world. The humour derives from the rapid rise of both the Internet and digital media, and the assumption by publishers and broadcasters that almost any such work is worthy of attention. Barley and his peers are often hired ahead of actual journalists and talented writers trying to make intelligent points, such as the earnest documentary filmmaker Claire Ashcroft, and her brother Dan Ashcroft, a jaded, opinionated and apathetic hack who, having written an article for \"Sugar Ape\" entitled \"The Rise of the Idiots\", is appalled to find that \"the idiots\" in question \u2013 Nathan and his contemporaries \u2013 have adopted him as their spiritual leader, failing to see that they are the very people he was criticising."}, {"context": " The series features two other central characters, siblings Dan (Julian Barratt) and Claire (Claire Keelan) Ashcroft. Dan dislikes everything Nathan Barley stands for, while Claire seeks to highlight the plight of the inner city's homeless and drug-dependent. While Dan sees a clear distinction between himself and the \"idiots\", he's frequently forced to compromise his own ethics in order to earn a living, and seems to be fighting the dawning realisation that he may actually be the very thing he despises. At the same time, Claire, who clearly wants to see herself as socially responsible and philanthropic, is doggedly determined to further her own career."}, {"context": " Other recurring characters include Nathan's idiot flatmate Toby (Rhys Thomas) and the staff at Dan Ashcroft's magazine, \"Sugar Ape\": asinine chief editor Jonatton Yeah? (Charlie Condou), Ned Smanks (Richard Ayoade) and Rufus Onslatt (Spencer Brown), a pair of gormless graphic designers, and receptionist Sasha (Nina Sosanya). Barley has an inoffensive young assistant called Pingu (Ben Whishaw). The eccentric and ludicrous Doug Rocket, founder member of The Veryphonics, and played by comedian David Hoyle (a spoof of Dave Stewart of Eurythmics), also appears in several episodes."}, {"context": " Dan Ashcroft's flatmate is a DJ called \"Jones\", who appears blissfully unaware of the antisocial cacophony he creates. Jones is played by Noel Fielding, Barratt's partner in comic duo The Mighty Boosh. In the pilot of the show, characters are different from those in the actual series. The character of Claire already knows Nathan and Pingu instead of meeting them in the first episode of the series. The character of Dan is decidedly darker and gets one up on Nathan and the idiots more often. Ned Smanks and Rufus Onslatt do not appear in the pilot, but Spencer Brown does play a minor character in the art gallery scene. Jonattan Yeah? makes a brief appearance and is largely the same. The pilot was never transmitted, but was included as an extra on the DVD. Story elements and some scenes shot for the pilot became used in the third, fourth and fifth episodes of the series, where the familiarity between the characters, and Dan Ashcroft's darker nature, make greater sense in context."}, {"context": " The series was promoted across the UK with billboards of Barley ostensibly advertising a fictitious mobile telephone, the Wasp T12 Speechtool (\"it's well weapon\"). This device was advertised as being exceptionally loud, with several hugely annoying ringtones, a giant key for the number 5 (allegedly the most commonly used digit), a powerful projector, a business card printer and miniature turntables for scratching MP3s. Barley's now-defunct website, www.trashbat.co.ck, served as an official site for the television series."}, {"context": " The DVD of the series was released in October 2005, featuring all six episodes, a number of extras (including the pilot), and a booklet written by Nathan featuring his artwork. The artwork in question is largely a parody of prolific graffiti artist Banksy by Shynola. Though the show only aired for one series, in a 2017 interview, Julian Barratt says \"We did do some work towards a second series back in the day. I think Nathan Barley was going to have a twin brother or something.\" Charlie Brooker commented in 2016 that the planned storyline for the second series \"moved away from the style magazine\", focusing on Barley's \"financial support being cut off [...] He was left adrift in a world where things were crumbling, and he was less certain of things\". However, those involved with the show were busy with other projects; Barratt opines that if the show were to return, \"they would need to approach it differently\" as \"everything from it kind of came true\"."}, {"context": " According to \"Digital Spy\", \"Nathan Barley\" was \"a flop when it originally aired, but a cult hit on DVD\". It pulled in 700,000 viewers and a 3% share. Reviews were generally favourable, though some criticized the show's jabs at the dot.com boom as lacking relevance, and believed that the portrayal and parody of the East London hipster was dated- however, the series is world renowned and lauded today for predicting a future of memes, vloggers and hipsters, and the global influence of social media. It is now considered, in both its cult following and international recognition, as one of the best sitcoms of all time. \"Radio Times\" wrote \"There are moments of Morris madness and it's a welcome comic oddity, though possibly one with limited appeal outside London's media maelstrom.\" \"The Telegraph\" described the title character as \"so laughable he makes you want to cry\".  Music used in \"Nathan Barley\" includes \"Einstein A Go-Go\" by Landscape and \"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)\" by Dead or Alive."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barnatt", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan James Barnatt (born February 2, 1981) is an American actor, comedian, dancer, and filmmaker. While in attendance at Medway High School in the late 90s, Barnatt starred on local television for the sketch comedy show \"Sweet Ride\". Barnatt appeared on Comedy Central's \"The Gong Show with Dave Attell\" in 2008, on Comedy Central's \"Ghosts/Aliens\" pilot in 2009, and on \"This Show Will Get You High\" in 2010. In 2012, Barnatt developed a show with Adult Swim based on his Keith Apicary character called \"Youth Large\". The \"Youth Large\" pilot was written by Barnatt, his brother Seth, and Paul Cummings (who is also the director). However, Adult Swim passed on the pilot but it was released online in August 2014. Since then Barnatt has sold shows to television networks Nickelodeon, Amazon, Comedy Central, Fox and Viceland."}, {"context": " Barnatt is a performer at the Upright Citizens Brigade theater in Hollywood California. He is also an amateur dancer, as displayed in his videos including a Kimberly Cole audition session. Because of his dancing and physical comedy skills, he was set to be the lead dancing clown for Michael Jackson's canceled \"This Is It\" concerts before dropping out to work on a Comedy Central pilot. His popularity in the Kimberly Cole audition video has led him to appear in the music video for Kimberly Cole's \"U Make Me Wanna\" in his Keith Apicary character. Barnatt also appeared in character in a music video for \"Let It Roll\" by Flo Rida. He appears in character in the music video for \"Freestyle\" by country music group Lady Antebellum."}, {"context": " In 2012, Barnatt was featured on the front cover of \"LA Weekly\" magazine, covering his success on YouTube. In 2013, Barnatt provided voice work on the Animation Domination show \"High School USA!\" as one of the main characters, Lamort Blackstein. In 2015, Barnatt played a police officer in the music video for \"Sugar\" by Robin Schulz. He was also featured as a dancer in the music video for \"Pop Culture\" by Madeon. In June 2016, Barnatt appeared as a guest on the Let's Play webseries \"Game Grumps\". And in November 2016, Barnatt appeared in an episode of \"James & Mike Mondays\", alongside his good friend James Rolfe, whom he worked with on Rolfe's 2014 film \"\". On December 20, 2016, he again appeared as his character Keith Apicary in a Christmas episode of the \"Angry Video Game Nerd\" episode where he dresses up as Will Ferrell's Elf in order to secure Santa's gifts, and he and the Nerd play a variety of games with different Sega Genesis accessories while destroying the set in a slapstick fashion.  In July 2018, Barnatt played a fast-talking salesman trying to sell a faceless customer a copy of a fictional game called \"Finger GunZ\", however the customer is repeatedly drawn to the gameplay of \"Sonic Mania Plus\". Deliberately edited to look and sound like a 1990s commercial, the customer talks about all the features of \"Sonic Mania Plus\" and its low price while Barnatt repeatedly tries to sell \"Finger GunZ\" with comments taking direct jabs at the games industry."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barnert", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barnert (September 20, 1838 \u2013 December 23, 1927) was an American businessman and politician. He was twice elected the Mayor of Paterson, New Jersey first on April 9, 1883. He was the original founder of the Miriam Barnert Hebrew Free School, the Daughters Of Miriam Home For The Aged And Orphans, the Barnert Memorial Hospital, and the Barnert Memorial Temple. He was born on September 20, 1838 in Posen and emigrated in 1849. He was elected the Mayor of Paterson, New Jersey on April 9, 1883."}, {"context": " A successful silk manufacturer, Nathan Barnert was twice elected Mayor of Paterson, first April 9, 1883 (serving through 1886), then again from 1888-1889, and served with distinction. Barnert, a noted philanthropist and humanitarian, was the original founder or benefactor of many Paterson Jewish institutions (see lede above and details below). He founded the Daughters Of Miriam Home For The Aged And Orphans in 1921 in a building at 469 River Street in Paterson. In 1921, he purchased the property known as Ashley Homestead on River Street and started this organization, which was named after his late wife Miriam. They moved to 155 Hazel Street, Clifton, New Jersey in 1927. The orphanage was phased out around in 1948. It still operates its Home for the Aged at the Clifton Address.  Barnert founded now-closed Barnert Hospital in Paterson, New Jersey in 1908. That same year he filed suit to have the Barnert Memorial Temple returned to his control. He died on December 23, 1927 of pneumonia. Barnert is one of three men to be honored with copper statues in front of the Carrere & Hastings designed Paterson City Hall. The other two are former Vice President of the United States and Paterson native Garret Augustus Hobart and former Paterson mayor Dr. Andrew McBride."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barnes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barnes was a rugby league footballer of the 1990s and 2000s. He played for the Penrith Panthers from 1992 to 1993, the Newcastle Knights from 1994 to 1995, the Parramatta Eels from 1996 to 1999 and finally the Canberra Raiders in 2000. After retiring from the National Rugby League, Barnes filled the captain / coach role at Windsor Wolves in the Jim Beam New South Wales Cup from 2002 to 2005."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barr", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barr (born 1973; also known as Nate Barr) is an American film and television composer known for playing the majority of the instruments heard in his compositions. While he is best known for scoring all seven seasons of HBO's Emmy Award-winning series, \"True Blood\", Barr has recently composed music for FX's \"The Americans\" and Netflix's \"Hemlock Grove\". On July 18, 2013, Barr garnered a double Emmy nomination for \"Outstanding Original Main Title Theme Music\" based on his work on \"The Americans\" and \"Hemlock Grove\"."}, {"context": " Barr started studying music in Tokyo, Japan at the age of four. His interest in music and collecting rare and unusual instruments lead him to travel all over the world. He has said he owns a trumpet made out of a human femur and a set of bagpipes out of a pig's belly. More recently, he has acquired and installed the Wurlitzer Theatre Pipe Organ from the 20th Century Fox sound stage. Barr studied at Skidmore College, and in 1993 toured Italy and Switzerland with the Juilliard Cello Ensemble. In 1996, Barr moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in composing film and television scores. One of his first jobs was working under the tutelage of world-renowned composer, Hans Zimmer, on films such as \"As Good as It Gets\" and \"The Prince of Egypt\". Shortly thereafter, he branched out on his own and landed his first solo-venture on the Lionsgate comedy \"Too Smooth\". Since then, Barr has scored a large array of feature films and TV series, most notably scoring all episodes of HBO's hit series \"True Blood\".  1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Composed with Angelo Badalamenti 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2013 2015 Composed with Randy Edelman Featuring Lisbeth Scott 2017 2018 2019"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barrett", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barrett may refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barrett (ice hockey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barrett (born August 3, 1981) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre. Barrett was selected by the Vancouver Canucks in the 8th round (241st overall) of the 2000 NHL Entry Draft. Between 2002 and 2006, Barrett played 257 games in the American Hockey League (AHL) with the St. John's Maple Leafs and Norfolk Admirals."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Barrett (politician)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Barrett (born 4 February 1976) is a former Australian politician who represented the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly seat of Blain from 2014 to 2016. Barrett was born in Darwin, and has lived in Palmerston for over twenty years. He was a port worker and teacher before entering politics. Barrett was elected at a by-election held on 12 April 2014 as a member of the governing Country Liberal Party. The vacancy was caused by the resignation of former Chief Minister Terry Mills. Although Blain, like most seats in the Palmerston area, had historically been CLP heartland, the by-election came at a difficult time for the CLP government. A week after the writ was issued, three indigenous CLP MPs defected to the crossbench. Had Barrett lost, the CLP would have been forced into a minority government. Ultimately, Barrett won, though the CLP suffered a swing of over 10 percent."}, {"context": " In February 2016, Barrett was promoted to Cabinet as Minister for Sport and Recreation, Minister for Young Territorians, and Minister Assisting the Treasurer. He was slated to become Treasurer after the 2016 estimates hearings. However, on 10 June, when \"Northern Territory News\" reported that he had sent a video of himself engaging in a sex act to a constituent with whom he had been having an affair, Barrett resigned from Cabinet. On 12 June, under growing pressure from the CLP's organisational wing, he announced that he would not contest the upcoming election. He then resigned from the CLP on 28 June 2016, and served out the rest of his term as an independent. In a speech announcing his move to the crossbench, he accused his political enemies of resorting to a base attack to bring him down. At that election, Blain was won by Barrett's predecessor, Mills, who ran as an independent."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bartholomay", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bartholomay (born May 18, 1989) is an American pair skater. With former partner Felicia Zhang, he is a two-time U.S. national medalist (silver in 2014, bronze in 2013) and competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics. Bartholomay was born May 18, 1989 in Newtown, Pennsylvania. In 2010, he graduated from Laurel Springs High School. Bartholomay began skating in 1997. Early in his career, he skated with Erica Choi Smith and Meg Byrne. Bartholomay teamed up with Felicia Zhang by May 2011. They were coached by Jim Peterson and Lyndon Johnston at the Ice and Sports Complex in Ellenton, Florida. In their first season, they placed eighth at the U.S. Championships."}, {"context": " Zhang/Bartholomay won bronze at the 2013 U.S. Championships and were assigned to the 2013 Four Continents Championships where they placed fourth. In the 2013\u201314 season, Zhang/Bartholomay received two Grand Prix assignments; they finished seventh at the 2013 Skate America and sixth at the 2013 Cup of China. After winning the silver medal at the 2014 U.S. Championships, ahead of Caydee Denney / John Coughlin, they were named to the U.S. team for the Olympics and listed as first alternates for the World Championships. Zhang/Bartholomay finished 12th at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. They were called up to replace the injured Denney/Coughlin at the 2014 World Championships, where they finished 14th. They announced the end of their partnership on July 16, 2014."}, {"context": " In July 2014, Bartholomay teamed up with Gretchen Donlan. In late October, he underwent surgery to repair a disc and remove bone spurs in his ankle, causing the pair to withdraw from their first assignment, the 2014 CS Ice Challenge. They placed seventh at the 2015 U.S. Championships and concluded their first season with gold at the International Challenge Cup. In the 2015\u201316 season, Donlan/Bartholomay appeared at two Challenger Series events, placing fifth at the 2015 U.S. Classic and sixth at the Ondrej Nepela Trophy. They withdrew from their Grand Prix assignment, the 2015 Skate America, after Donlan fell ill with a severe flu. She developed labyrinthitis in her right ear, resulting in vertigo that kept her off the ice for three months and forced the pair to withdraw from the 2016 U.S. Championships. The pair announced the end of their partnership in March 2016. They were coached by Jim Peterson in Ellenton, Florida."}, {"context": " U.S. Figure Skating's high performance director, Mitch Moyer, suggested a tryout with Deanna Stellato, a former single skater who was visiting the rink at which Bartholomay was working. In July 2016, Stellato and Bartholomay announced that they had formed a partnership and were based at the Ellenton Ice and Sports Complex. Coached by Jim Peterson, they train on ice three hours a day, five days a week. Making their international debut together, the pair placed 6th at the 2016 CS Golden Spin of Zagreb. After taking the gold medal at the Eastern Sectional Championships, they qualified for the 2017 U.S. Championships.  \"GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series\""}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baskerville", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Angus Baskerville is Democratic member of the North Carolina House of Representatives, serving since 2013. Baskerville also has his own law practice. During the 2015 legislative session, Baskerville is one of 22 African Americans in the North Carolina House of Representatives."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bassett", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Bassy\" Bassett (born 7 December 1976 in Adelaide, South Australia) is a former Australian rules footballer for the Adelaide Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). He is currently an assistant coach with the Port Adelaide Football Club. Drafted with the third selection in the first AFL Rookie Draft by in 1997, Bassett was elevated to the senior list during the season but was unable to make his AFL debut for the Demons due to a chest injury. At the end of the season he was traded to Adelaide, and went on to become one of the Crows' best defenders. He played 210 games for Adelaide and topped off a great 2005 season by being named Best Team Man and coming runner up in the Club's Best and Fairest award."}, {"context": " In 2006 Bassett was named to the All-Australian Team, along with his teammates Andrew McLeod and Simon Goodwin. Some of Bassett's nicknames include The Hound, Bassy, Bruce and Fred Basset \u2013 after the comic strip which appears in many Australian newspapers. He was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes in 1997. ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 1998 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 1999 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2000 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2001 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2002"}, {"context": " ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2003 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2004 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2005 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2006 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2007 ! scope=\"row\" style=\"text-align:center\" | 2008 ! colspan=3| Career ! 210 ! 25 ! 10 ! 1668 ! 1072 ! 2740 ! 952 ! 295 ! 0.1 ! 0.0 ! 7.9 ! 5.1 ! 13.0 ! 4.5 ! 1.4 Bassett was the senior coach of the Norwood Football Club which plays in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL). He coached them to the Grand Final in his first season in 2010, and led the Redlegs to their 28th SANFL premiership with a 12.7 (79) to 3.12 (30) win over West Adelaide in the Grand Final at AAMI Stadium. Back-to-back premiership success came in 2013 over North Adelaide. At the last match ever played at AAMI Stadium, in front of almost 37,000 fans, Norwood defeated North Adelaide 10.12 (72) to 4.8 (32).  On 17 October 2013, Bassett was confirmed as an assistant coach to Mark Thompson at Essendon. The move reunited Bassett with former Adelaide coach Neil Craig, who Bassett played under from 2004 to 2008. He remained an assistant at Essendon until the end of 2015. On 18 September 2015, Bassett was announced as an assistant coach at the Port Adelaide Football Club."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Batson", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Evan Batson (born 24 July 1978) is a former English cricketer who had a brief county cricket career with Worcestershire. He was born in Basildon, Essex. Batson was discovered by Worcestershire after writing to the county the previous winter to ask for a trial. After one match for Essex Second XI, and several more for Worcestershire seconds, he made his first-class debut for Worcestershire in August, scoring 15 and 4 against Nottinghamshire at Kidderminster. He appeared in a further two matches that season, but made little impression in either of them. That winter, he played a single List A game for Zimbabwe Cricket Academy against England A at the Harare South Country Club ground, making 43."}, {"context": " Batson played three successive first-class matches in May 1999, but 91 runs in six innings was not enough to keep him in contention and he returned to the seconds. There he continued to struggle at first, but two hundreds and two more half-centuries in July was enough to gain him another chance in the County Championship game against Yorkshire in early August. He was dismissed for 1 in each innings, but managed 72 (his career best) and 16 not out against Sri Lanka A a few days later. That was to prove his final appearance in senior cricket, although he did play one further match for Essex Second XI in 2000.  In club cricket, Batson played for Billericay Cricket Club's first team for 13 years, bowing out after the 2006 season when he emigrated to New Zealand with his fianc\u00e9e."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Batty", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Batty is a professional rugby league footballer who played in the 2000s. He played at club level for Wakefield Trinity Wildcats (Heritage \u2116 1178), Dewsbury Rams, and Featherstone Rovers (Heritage \u2116 843), as a , or . Nathan Batty made his d\u00e9but for Featherstone Rovers on 1 February 2004."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bauman", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathaniel Robert Bauman (born June 22, 1987 in Petoskey, Michigan) is an American born entertainment consultant and drummer. Currently, he is the drummer for The Band Royale and a monthly contributor for the music publication Modern Drummer. Aside from drumming, he is also known for his development of various start-ups, brands, venues, musicians and athletes. Alongside celebrity nightlife operator Billy Dec and Arturo Gomez at Rockit Ranch Productions, he supported the company in opening and marketing over 5 award winning restaurants & nightclubs while serving as the company's Nightlife Director. Bauman also collaborated with the W Hotel Hollywood and Victor Drai, handling all public relations for rooftop hotspot, Drai's Hollywood."}, {"context": " In 2012, he formed The Band Royale with his brother, Joel Bauman, a well known guitarist for his popular product demos on YouTube. Bauman endorses C&C Drums. His youngest brother and amateur skateboarder, Zach Bauman, would join the group in 2014. He has worked with various other musicians, such as The Cool Kids, DJ Million $ Mano (Kanye West/Jay-Z/Travie McCoy/M.I.A.), DJ White Shadow (Lady Gaga's \"Born This Way\" producer), Matthew Santos, Malik Yusef, Rockie Fresh, GLC, Vic Mensa, John West and Midnight Conspiracy (Autograf). Bauman comes from the entertainment agency heavyweight WME Agent Training Program in Beverly Hills, called \"The Harvard School of Show Business\" by past graduate David Geffen."}, {"context": " Bauman has been involved with multiple startups from the beginning stages as the Head of Business Development. He is noted for being one of the first employees of shoe retailer BucketFeet and online music gear marketplace Reverb.com. Alongside fellow The Band Royale member, he and bassist Marc Najjar performed together in YouTube video \"100 Bass Riffs: A Brief History of Groove on Bass and Drums\", which features the two seamlessly playing 100 popular songs in succession without stopping. It was recorded in just one take, tallying a total of 18 minutes. The video has been featured in numerous blogs and magazines and has over 3 million views to date."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baxter", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Baxter is the name of:"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Baxter (footballer)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Joseph Baxter (born 8 November 1998) is an English professional footballer who plays for Yeovil Town, on loan from Chelsea, as a goalkeeper. Born in Westminster, Baxter began his career with Cray Wanderers. He then joined Chelsea at the age of 8. In the 2015\u201316 season he won the FA Youth Cup and the UEFA Youth League. He moved on loan to Isthmian League side Metropolitan Police on a short-term deal until January in August 2016. He spent four months at the club, making 19 appearances, before returning to Chelsea in January 2017."}, {"context": " He then joined National League side Solihull Moors on loan for the remainder of the 2016\u201317 campaign. On 21 January 2017, he made his Solihull debut, keeping a clean sheet during their 0\u20130 draw with Boreham Wood. He made three clean sheets in his first four games for the club. Baxter went onto appear 17 appearances in total for the club. On 21 June 2017, Baxter joined fellow National League side Woking on a season-long loan. On the opening day of the campaign, Baxter went onto make his Woking debut as they recorded a 2\u20131 home victory over Gateshead. Baxter went on to make 48 appearances in total for the club. During the 2017\u201318 season, Baxter played more minutes (4320) than any other Chelsea loanee."}, {"context": " On 26 June 2018, Baxter agreed to join League Two side Yeovil Town on a season-long loan. Baxter made his Football League debut in their opening day of the season, in a 1\u20130 away defeat against Bury. At Yeovil, he did not concede a goal for 10 hours 12 minutes, and set a club record after keeping 6 consecutive clean sheets in all competitions. As of 5 November 2018, he was the \"only teenage goalkeeper currently in English football's professional ranks to have racked up over 100 appearances in the senior game\".  Baxter has stated that Petr \u010cech was his inspiration."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Beaulieu", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Anthony Richard Beaulieu (born December 5, 1992) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player currently playing for the Buffalo Sabres of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected 17th overall in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft by the Montreal Canadiens. In junior, Beaulieu helped the Saint John Sea Dogs win the 2011 Memorial Cup, and was named to the tournament's all-star team. Beaulieu was drafted by the Saint John Sea Dogs in the fourth round, 68th overall, of the 2008 Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) Midget Draft. When he began his junior career with the Sea Dogs in 2008, his father Jacques was the team's head coach. His father was fired by the team and replaced with Gerard Gallant in 2009, an incident which caused Beaulieu to consider leaving the team. He decided to remain with Saint John after speaking with Gallant."}, {"context": " During the 2010\u201311 QMJHL season, Beaulieu established himself as a top prospect for the 2011 NHL Entry Draft, and was nominated for the Mike Bossy Trophy, awarded to the QMJHL's top professional prospect; he lost the award to Sean Couturier. Beaulieu was ranked fifth among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau in its final rankings, an improvement from his mid-season ranking of ninth. Saint John won the QMJHL championship and moved on to the 2011 Memorial Cup. Beaulieu scored the winning goal in the team's first game of the tournament against hosts Mississauga St. Michael's Majors. The Sea Dogs met the Majors again in the championship game of the tournament and won 3\u20131 to capture the Memorial Cup. After the tournament, Beaulieu was named to the Memorial Cup All-Star Team. The Sea Dogs win was the second Memorial Cup win for the Beaulieu family, as his father Jacques was an assistant coach with the London Knights when they won in 2005."}, {"context": " Beaulieu made his professional debut in the 2012\u201313 season with the Canadiens' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, the Hamilton Bulldogs. He later played his first NHL game with the Canadiens on March 30, 2013. On June 17, 2017, Beaulieu was traded by the Canadiens to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for the Sabres' third-round pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. On April 27, 2013, Beaulieu\u2014along with his father Jacques\u2014were involved in an altercation in their hometown of Strathroy, Ontario. The incident in question took place following a charity golf tournament at a private residence and stemmed from property damages by the Beaulieus. As a result, two people were assaulted and suffered minor injuries. In August 2013, Beaulieu and his father pleaded guilty to assault. Each was assessed penalties of conditional discharges with nine months' probation, a joint recommendation from the Crown and the defence.  Beaulieu participated at the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships held in Canada and won the bronze medal."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Beauregard", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Beauregard, real name Nathan Bogard, (*1887, 1893 or 1896 in Colbert, Mississippi; died May 15, 1970 in Memphis, Tennessee) was an African-American blues singer and guitarist. Born blind, Beauregard soon became a musician, his repertoire consisting of songs of the pre-blues era and dance tunes like \"Spoonful\" and \"Pretty Bunch of Daisies\". When he was in his thirties, in the times of the \"race recordings\" of the 1920s, he saw many blues musicians with minor talent make a fortune as a recording artist while he himself was not offered such a chance.  During the folk and blues revival of the 1960s Beauregard was \"discovered\" in Memphis by Bill Barth, who convinced him to work as a musician again. In the short time between his \"discovery\" in 1968 and his death in 1970, he played at various folk and blues festivals (e.g. the 1968 Memphis Country Blues Festival, which has been recorded on the Sire and Blue Horizon labels) and on a number of compilation albums on such labels as Blue Thumb, Arhoolie und Adelphi."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bech", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bech (born 1974, Springfield, Massachusetts) is a Republican member of the West Springfield, Massachusetts Town Council. Bech is a member of the Rotary Club of West Springfield. He is a volunteer at the Hampden County House of Corrections in Ludlow, Massachusetts. He is also a member of Cottage Hill Church in Springfield, Massachusetts. In 2013, Bech successfully organized a campaign in his hometown of West Springfield, Massachusetts to prevent the establishment of a gambling casino there by the Hard Rock Corporation. Though vastly outspent, Bech's grass roots campaign was successful with 55% of voters voting 'No'. He continues to be active with the statewide effort to Repeal the Casino Deal in Massachusetts which will be voted on by Massachusetts voters on November 4, 2014."}, {"context": " Bech grew up in the predominantly Hispanic North End of Springfield, Massachusetts. His family moved to West Springfield when Bech was ten years old. Bech completed the requirements for a high school diploma in three years and spent his fourth year of high school studying in India as a Rotary Youth Exchange Student. Bech graduated from West Springfield High School in 1992. Bech is a graduate of Colgate University where he earned his Bachelor of Arts Degree in Political Science in 1999. Bech has also studied Middle Eastern languages, cultures and history at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst and at other schools across the region. He completed his Master of the Arts Degree in Middle Eastern Cultures and Religions from Jerusalem University College in 2014."}, {"context": " Bech joined the U.S. Army Reserve two days before his eighteenth birthday. It was in the military that Bech learned Russian, mostly at the Defense Language Institute. After ten years of combined service in the Army Reserves and the Massachusetts Army National Guard, Bech was selected for and graduated from Officer Candidate School. Bech then served on active duty with the 10th Mountain Division at Fort Drum, New York. His first deployment was to Afghanistan along the Pakistan border with the 1st Battalion, 87th Infantry Regiment as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. Upon returning, Bech served at Fort Drum as a company executive officer until he volunteered for his second deployment, this time to Iraq. Due to his Russian language skills, he was deployed as a liaison to the 13th \"Shavnabada\" Light Infantry Battalion of the Republic of Georgia. The Republic of Georgia's Ministry of Defense made Bech an honorary member of that battalion for his work with Georgian troops in Iraq."}, {"context": " After leaving active duty and spending several years in the Individual Ready Reserve, Bech rejoined the US Army Reserves in 2009 as a Civil Affairs Officer. He deployed to Afghanistan again, this time serving as a Civil Affairs Team Chief in Kandahar. He and his team members oversaw project development in coordination with Kandahar city officials and USAID representatives in order to promote the legitimacy of the US-backed Afghan government there. Bech's projects included the successful construction of a Nursing and Midwifery Institute for the Afghan Ministry of Health with the goal of training midwives in order to reduce the high Afghan death rate of women and children during childbirth."}, {"context": " Bech's fourth deployment was to Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti, Africa. There he oversaw project development by Civil Affairs Teams throughout many countries in the Horn of Africa. Bech was the 2008 Republican Party candidate for U.S. Congress from Massachusetts's 1st congressional district. He ran against then incumbent John W. Olver, an Amherst Democrat, who has since retired.<ref name=\"urlSwift Endorses Bech for Congress - / iBerkshires.com - The Berkshires online guide to events, news and Berkshire County community information.\"></ref> The seat is currently held by Rep. Richard Neal, a Springfield Democrat. Bech is one of eighteen Iraq War veterans who ran for congress in 2008."}, {"context": " Bech was the 2014 Republican Party candidate for State Representative in the 6th Hampden District of Massachusetts which includes all of West Springfield, Wards 2A, 3A, and 4A in Chicopee, and Ward 2E in Springfield. Bech's motto was \"Putting People First.\" He describes his campaign and political efforts as an approach \"to put the interests of voters and tax-payers ahead of party politics.\" His stated goals are \"to defend families and small businesses from runaway taxation and legislation that favors Boston insiders rather than the people who elected them.\" His political priorities include; \"eliminating waste in the state budget, reducing unemployment, strengthening public safety, improving healthcare and education, and returning integrity to the State House.\""}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest (July 13, 1821 \u2013 October 29, 1877), called Bedford Forrest in his lifetime, was a cotton farmer, slave owner, slave trader, Confederate Army general during the American Civil War, first leader of the Ku Klux Klan and president of the Selma, Marion & Memphis Railroad. Prior to the outbreak of the war, Forrest amassed substantial wealth as a cotton planter, horse and cattle trader, real estate broker and slave trader. In June 1861, Forrest enlisted in the Confederate Army. He was one of the few officers on either side during the war to enlist as a private and be promoted to general officer and corps commander without any military education or training. An expert cavalry leader, Forrest eventually was given command of a corps and established new doctrines for mobile forces, earning the nickname \"The Wizard of the Saddle\". His methods subsequently influenced many future generations of military strategists, although the Confederate high command may have failed to fully utilize his talents."}, {"context": " Forrest's cavalry captured more Union guns, horses and supplies than any other single Confederate unit. Forrest proved to be a belligerent nemesis for both Union Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman. He played pivotal roles at Fort Donelson, Shiloh, the capture of Murfreesboro, the pursuit and capture of Colonel Abel Streight's Raiders, Brice's Crossroads and the Nashville Campaign. In April 1864, in what has been called \"one of the bleakest, saddest events of American military history,\" troops under Forrest's command massacred Union troops who had surrendered, most of them black soldiers, along with some white Southern Tennesseans fighting for the Union, at the Battle of Fort Pillow. Forrest was blamed for the massacre in the Union press, and that news may have strengthened the North's resolve. In June, Forrest achieved a notable victory at Brice's Crossroads, but was followed by a Confederate defeat at Tupelo, in July, where he was wounded in battle. Forrest was in chief command of the cavalry during the Nashville Campaign. In February 1865, Forrest was promoted to Lieutenant General. After Robert E. Lee was defeated and surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, the war came to a conclusion. In May 1865, Forrest surrendered at Selma, was paroled, and he returned to his cotton plantations. During Reconstruction, Forrest's citizenship rights were restored with the pardon he received from President Andrew Johnson on July 17, 1868, but he never could escape the label of \"Butcher of Fort Pillow\"."}, {"context": " Forrest joined the Ku Klux Klan, apparently in 1867, two years after its founding and was elected its first Grand Wizard. At the time the group was a loose collection of local groups that used violence and the threat of violence to maintain white control over the newly liberated and enfranchised slaves. While Forrest was a leader, the Klan, during the Election of 1868, suppressed voting rights of blacks and Republicans in the South through violence and intimidation. In 1869, Forrest expressed disillusionment with the lack of discipline among the various white supremacist groups across the South, and issued a letter ordering the dissolution of the Ku Klux Klan and its costumes to be destroyed and withdrew from the organization. Lacking coordinated leadership and facing strong prosecution by President Grant and the newly established Department of Justice, the members of this first incarnation of the Klan absconded and it gradually disappeared."}, {"context": " For a time after the war, Forrest operated a prison labor camp where prisoners, primarily black men arrested for \"vagrancy\" or other similar charges, had their involuntary labor auctioned to private bidders, to the benefit of the buyers and the prison officials. However, in the last years of his life, Forrest publicly denounced the violence and racism practiced by the Klan, insisted he had never been a member and made at least one public speech (to a black audience) in favor of racial harmony. Although scholars admire Forrest as a military strategist, he has remained a highly controversial figure in Southern history, especially for his role in the attack on Fort Pillow, his 1867\u20131869 leadership of the Ku Klux Klan and his political influence as a Tennessee delegate at the 1868 Democratic National Convention."}, {"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest was born on July 13, 1821 to a poor settler family in a secluded frontier cabin near Chapel Hill hamlet, then part of Bedford County, Tennessee, but now encompassed in Marshall County. Forrest was the first son of William and Mariam (Beck) Forrest. His father William was of English descent and most of his biographers state that his mother Mariam was of Scotch-Irish descent, but the Memphis Genealogical Society says that she was of English descent as well. He and his twin sister, Fanny, were the two eldest of blacksmith William Forrest's 12 children with wife Miriam Beck. Forrest's great-grandfather, Shadrach Forrest, possibly of English birth, moved from Virginia to North Carolina, between 1730-1740, and there his son and grandson were born; they moved to Tennessee in 1806. Forrest's family lived in a log house (now preserved as the Nathan Bedford Forrest Boyhood Home) from 1830 to 1833. John Allan Wyeth, who served in an Alabama regiment under Forrest, described it as a one-room building with a loft and no windows. William Forrest worked as a blacksmith in Tennessee until 1834, when he moved to Mississippi. William died in 1837 and Forrest became the primary caretaker of the family at the age of sixteen."}, {"context": " In 1841 Forrest went into business with his uncle Jonathan Forrest in Hernando, Mississippi. His uncle was killed there in 1845 during an argument with the Matlock brothers. In retaliation, Forrest shot and killed two of them with his two-shot pistol and wounded two others with a knife which had been thrown to him. One of the wounded Matlock men survived and served under Forrest during the Civil War. Forrest became a successful businessman, planter and slaveholder. He also acquired several cotton plantations in the Delta region of West Tennessee. He was also a slave trader, at a time when demand was booming in the Deep South; his trading business was based on Adams Street in Memphis. In 1858, Forrest was elected a Memphis city alderman as a and served two consecutive terms. By the time the American Civil War started in 1861, he had become one of the richest men in the South, having amassed a \"personal fortune that he claimed was worth $1.5 million\"."}, {"context": " Forrest was well known as a Memphis speculator and Mississippi gambler. In 1859, he bought two large cotton plantations in Coahoma County, Mississippi and a half-interest in another plantation in Arkansas; by October 1860 he owned at least 3,345 acres in Mississippi. Forrest had 12 brothers and sisters; two of his eight brothers and his three sisters died of typhoid fever at an early age, all at about the same time. He also contracted the disease, but survived; his father recovered but died from residual effects of the disease five years later, when Bedford was 16. His mother Miriam then married James Horatio Luxton, of Marshall, Texas, in 1843 and gave birth to four more children."}, {"context": " In 1845, Forrest married Mary Ann Montgomery (1826\u20131893), the niece of a Presbyterian minister who was her legal guardian. They had two children, William Montgomery Bedford Forrest (1846\u20131908), who enlisted at the age of 15 and served alongside his father in the war, and a daughter, Fanny (1849\u20131854), who died in childhood. His descendants continued the military tradition. A grandson, Nathan Bedford Forrest II (1872\u20131931), became commander-in-chief of the Sons of Confederate Veterans and a Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan in Georgia and secretary of the national organization. A great-grandson, Nathan Bedford Forrest III (1905\u20131943), graduated from West Point and rose to the rank of brigadier general in the U.S. Army Air Corps; he was killed during a bombing raid over Nazi Germany in 1943, becoming the first American general to die in European combat in World War II."}, {"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest was a tall man and had a commanding presence. Out of habit, he was mild mannered, quiet in speech, exemplary in language, considerate and generally kindhearted. Forrest rarely drank and he abstained from tobacco usage. When he was provoked or angered, however, he would become savage, profane and terrifying in appearance. Although he was not formally educated, Forrest was able to read and write in clear and grammatical English. After the Civil War broke out, Forrest returned to Tennessee from his Mississippi ventures and enlisted in the Confederate States Army (CSA) on June 14, 1861. He reported for training at Fort Wright near Randolph, Tennessee, joining Captain Josiah White's cavalry company, the Tennessee Mounted Rifles (Seventh Tennessee Cavalry), as a private along with his youngest brother and 15-year-old son. Upon seeing how badly equipped the CSA was, Forrest offered to buy horses and equipment with his own money for a regiment of Tennessee volunteer soldiers."}, {"context": " His superior officers and Governor of Tennessee Isham G. Harris were surprised that someone of Forrest's wealth and prominence had enlisted as a soldier, especially since major planters were exempted from service. They commissioned him as a lieutenant colonel and authorized him to recruit and train a battalion of Confederate mounted rangers. In October 1861, Forrest was given command of a regiment, the 3rd Tennessee Cavalry. Though Forrest had no prior formal military training or experience, he had exhibited leadership and soon proved he had a gift for successful tactics."}, {"context": " Public debate surrounded Tennessee's decision to join the Confederacy and both the Confederate and Union armies recruited soldiers from the state. More than 100,000 men from Tennessee served with the Confederacy and over 31,000 served with the Union. Forrest posted advertisements to join his regiment, with the slogan, \"Let's have some fun and kill some Yankees!\". Forrest's command included his Escort Company (his \"Special Forces\"), for which he selected the best soldiers available. This unit, which varied in size from 40 to 90 men, constituted the elite of his cavalry."}, {"context": " At in height and about , Forrest was physically imposing, especially compared to the average height of men at the time. He used his skills as a hard rider and fierce swordsman to great effect; he was known to sharpen both the top and bottom edges of his heavy saber. Forrest killed thirty enemy soldiers in hand-to hand combat. Forrest received praise for his skill and courage during an early victory in the Battle of Sacramento in Kentucky, the first in which he commanded troops in the field, where he routed a Union force by personally leading a cavalry charge that was later commended by his commander, Brigadier General Charles Clark. Forrest distinguished himself further at the Battle of Fort Donelson in February 1862. After his cavalry captured a Union artillery battery, he broke out of a siege headed by Major General Ulysses S. Grant, rallying nearly 4,000 troops and leading them to escape across the Cumberland River."}, {"context": " A few days after the Confederate surrender of Fort Donelson, with the fall of Nashville to Union forces imminent, Forrest took command of the city. All available carts and wagons were impressed into service to haul six hundred boxes of army clothing, 250,000 pounds of bacon and forty wagon-loads of ammunition to the railroad depots, to be sent off to Chattanooga and Decatur. Forrest arranged for the heavy ordnance machinery, including a new cannon rifling machine and fourteen cannons built at Brennan's machine shop, as well as parts from the Nashville Armory, to be sent to Atlanta for use by the Confederate Army; meanwhile the governor and legislature departed hastily for Memphis."}, {"context": " A month later, Forrest was back in action at the Battle of Shiloh, fought April 6\u20137, 1862. He commanded a Confederate rear guard after the Union victory. In the battle of Fallen Timbers, he drove through the Union skirmish line. Not realizing that the rest of his men had halted their charge when reaching the full Union brigade, Forrest charged the brigade alone and soon found himself surrounded. He emptied his Colt Army revolvers into the swirling mass of Union soldiers and pulled out his saber, hacking and slashing. A Union infantryman on the ground beside Forrest fired a musket ball at him with a point-blank shot, nearly knocking him out of the saddle. The ball went through Forrest's pelvis and lodged near his spine. A surgeon removed the musket ball a week later, without anesthesia, which was unavailable."}, {"context": " By early summer, Forrest commanded a new brigade of \"green\" cavalry regiments. In July, he led them into Middle Tennessee under orders to launch a cavalry raid, and on July 13, 1862, led them into the First Battle of Murfreesboro, as a result of which all of the Union units surrendered to Forrest, and the Confederates destroyed much of the Union's supplies and railroad track in the area. Promoted on July 21, 1862 to brigadier general, Forrest was given command of a Confederate cavalry brigade. In December 1862, Forrest's veteran troopers were reassigned by General Braxton Bragg to another officer, against his protest. Forrest had to recruit a new brigade, composed of about 2,000 inexperienced recruits, most of whom lacked weapons. Again, Bragg ordered a series of raids, this time into west Tennessee, to disrupt the communications of the Union forces under Grant, which were threatening the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. Forrest protested that to send such untrained men behind enemy lines was suicidal, but Bragg insisted, and Forrest obeyed his orders. In the ensuing raids he led thousands of Union soldiers in west Tennessee on a \"wild goose chase\" to try to locate his fast-moving forces. Never staying in one place long enough to be attacked, Forrest led his troops in raids as far north as the banks of the Ohio River in southwest Kentucky. His destruction of railroads around Grant's headquarters at Holly Springs and his cutting down of telegraph lines slowed the implementation of Grant's notorious anti-semitic General Orders #11, which expelled Jewish cotton traders and their families from Grant's military district. Grant had blamed Jews for widespread cotton smuggling and speculation that affected his ability to fight the Confederate Army."}, {"context": " Forrest returned to his base in Mississippi with more men than he had started with. By then, all were fully armed with captured Union weapons. As a result, Grant was forced to revise and delay the strategy of his Vicksburg campaign. Newspaper correspondent Sylvanus Cadwallader, who traveled with Grant for three years during his campaigns, wrote that Forrest \"was the only Confederate cavalryman of whom Grant stood in much dread\". The Union Army gained military control of Tennessee in 1862 and occupied it for the duration of the war, having taken control of strategic cities and railroads. Forrest continued to lead his men in small-scale operations, including the Battle of Dover and the Battle of Brentwood until April 1863. The Confederate army dispatched him with a small force into the backcountry of northern Alabama and west Georgia to defend against an attack of 3,000 Union cavalrymen commanded by Colonel Abel Streight. Streight had orders to cut the Confederate railroad south of Chattanooga, Tennessee to cut off Bragg's supply line and force him to retreat into Georgia. Forrest chased Streight's men for 16 days, harassing them all the way. Streight's goal changed from dismantling the railroad to escaping the pursuit. On May 3, Forrest caught up with Streight's unit east of Cedar Bluff, Alabama. Forrest had fewer men than the Union side but he repeatedly paraded some of them around a hilltop to appear to be a larger force and convinced Streight to surrender his 1,500 or so exhausted troops (historians Kevin Dougherty and Keith S. Hebert say he had about 1,700 men)."}, {"context": " Not all of Forrest's feats of individual combat involved enemy troops. Lieutenant Andrew Wills Gould, an artillery officer in Forrest's command, was being transferred, presumably because cannons under his command were spiked (disabled) by the enemy during the Battle of Day's Gap. On June 13, 1863, Gould confronted Forrest about his transfer, which escalated into a violent exchange. Gould shot Forrest in the hip and Forrest mortally stabbed Gould. Forrest was thought to have been fatally wounded by Gould but he recovered and was ready for the Chickamauga Campaign."}, {"context": " Forrest served with the main army at the Battle of Chickamauga on September 18\u201320, 1863. He pursued the retreating Union army and took hundreds of prisoners. Like several others under Bragg's command, he urged an immediate follow-up attack to recapture Chattanooga, which had fallen a few weeks before. Bragg failed to do so, upon which Forrest was quoted as saying, \"What does he fight battles for?\" The story that Forrest confronted and threatened the life of Bragg in the fall of 1863, following the battle of Chickamauga, and that Bragg transferred Forrest to command in Mississippi as a direct result, is now considered to be apocryphal."}, {"context": " On December 4, 1863, Forrest was promoted to the rank of major general. On March 25, 1864, Forrest's cavalry raided the town of Paducah, Kentucky in the Battle of Paducah, during which Forrest demanded the surrender of U.S. Colonel Stephen G. Hicks: \"...\u00a0if I have to storm your works, you may expect no quarter.\" The bluff failed and Hicks refused. Fort Pillow, located 40 miles up river from Memphis (\"Henning\"), was originally constructed by Confederate general Gideon Johnson Pillow, on the bluffs of the Mississippi River, later taken over by Union forces in 1862, after the Confederates had abandoned the fort. The fort was manned by 557 Union troops, 295 white and 262 black, under Union commander Maj. L.F. Booth."}, {"context": " On the early morning of April 12, 1864, Forrest's men under Brig. Gen. James Chalmers, attacked and recaptured Fort Pillow. Booth and his adjutant were killed in battle, leaving Fort Pillow under the command of Major William Bradford At 10:00 Forrest reached the fort after a hard ride from Mississippi. Not shy of action, Forrest rode up to the battle, his horse was shot under him, and he fell to the ground. Undaunted, Forrest mounted a second horse, which was shot under him as well, forcing him to mount a third horse. By 3:30 pm, Forrest concluded the Fort could not be held anymore and ordered a flag of truce and that the fort be surrendered. Bradford refused to surrender, believing his troops could escape to the Union gunboat, USS \"New Era\", on the Mississippi River. Forrest's men immediately took over the fort, while Union soldiers retreated to the lower bluffs of the river, but the \"USS New Era\" did not come to their rescue. What happened next became known as the \"Fort Pillow Massacre\" As the Union troops surrendered, Forrest's men opened fire, slaughtering both black and white soldiers. White soldiers were killed at a rate of 31 percent, while black troops had a casualty rate of 64 percent. The atrocities at Fort Pillow continued throughout the night; conflicting accounts of what actually occurred were given later."}, {"context": " Forrest's Confederate forces were accused of subjecting Union captured soldiers to extreme brutality, with allegations of back-shooting soldiers who fled into the river, shooting wounded soldiers, burning men alive, nailing men to barrels and igniting them, crucifixion, and hacking men to death with sabers. Forrest's men were alleged to have set fire to a Union barracks with wounded Union soldiers inside In defense of their actions, Forrest's men insisted that the Union soldiers, although fleeing, kept their weapons and frequently turned to shoot, forcing the Confederates to keep firing in self-defense. The rebels said the Union flag was still flying over the fort, which indicated that the force had not formally surrendered. A contemporary newspaper account from Jackson, Tennessee stated that \"General Forrest begged them to surrender\", but \"not the first sign of surrender was ever given\". Similar accounts were reported in many Southern newspapers at the time. These statements, however, were contradicted by Union survivors, as well as by the letter of a Confederate soldier who graphically recounted a massacre. Achilles Clark, a soldier with the 20th Tennessee cavalry, wrote to his sisters immediately after the battle:"}, {"context": " Following the cessation of hostilities, Forrest transferred the 14 most seriously wounded United States Colored Troops (USCT) to the U.S. steamer \"Silver Cloud\". The 226 Union troops taken prisoner at Fort Pillow were marched under guard to Holly Springs, Mississippi, and then convoyed to Demopolis, Alabama. On April 21, Capt. John Goodwin, of Forrest's cavalry command, forwarded a dispatch listing the prisoners captured. The list included the names of 7 officers and 219 white enlisted soldiers. According to Richard L. Fuchs, records concerning the black prisoners are \"nonexistent or unreliable.\" President Abraham Lincoln asked his cabinet for opinions as to how the Union should respond to the massacre. General Sherman headed an investigation into the massacre and the extent of Forrest's culpability for it, in which Forrest was found blameless, as \"he was to the rear, out of sight if not of hearing at the time\" and \"stopped the firing as soon as he could.\" Additionally, Sherman \"was told by hundreds\" of Union soldiers that they were treated well, while prisoners under Forrest, at various times during the war."}, {"context": " At the time of the massacre, General Grant was no longer in Tennessee but had transferred to the east to command all Union troops. He wrote in his memoirs that Forrest in his report of the battle had \"left out the part which shocks humanity to read.\" The Northern public and press viewed Forrest as a butcher and a war criminal over Fort Pillow. The \"Chicago Tribune\" said Forrest and his brothers were \"slave drivers and woman whippers,\" while Forrest himself was described as a tall, snake-eyed man, who was \"mean, vindictive, cruel, and unscrupulous.\"The Southern press steadfastly defended Forrest's reputation."}, {"context": " Forrest's greatest victory came on June 10, 1864, when his 3,500-man force clashed with 8,500 men commanded by Union Brig. Gen. Samuel D. Sturgis at the Battle of Brice's Crossroads in northeastern Mississippi. Here, the mobility of the troops under his command and his superior tactics led to victory; allowing him to continue harassing Union forces in southwestern Tennessee and northern Mississippi throughout the war. Forrest set up a position for an attack to repulse a pursuing force commanded by Sturgis, who had been sent to impede Forrest from destroying Union supply lines and fortifications. When Sturgis's Federal army came upon the crossroads, they collided with Forrest's cavalry. Sturgis ordered his infantry to advance to the front line to counteract the cavalry. The infantry, tired and weary and suffering under the heat, were quickly broken and sent into mass retreat. Forrest sent a full charge after the retreating army and captured 16 artillery pieces, 176 wagons, and 1,500 stands of small arms. In all, the maneuver cost Forrest 96 men killed and 396 wounded. The day was worse for Union troops, which suffered 223 killed, 394 wounded, and 1,623 missing. The losses were a deep blow to the black regiment under Sturgis's command. In the hasty retreat, they stripped off commemorative badges that read \"Remember Fort Pillow\" to avoid goading the Confederate force pursuing them."}, {"context": " One month later, while serving under General Stephen D. Lee, Forrest experienced tactical defeat at the Battle of Tupelo in 1864. Concerned about Union supply lines, Maj. Gen. Sherman sent a force under the command of Maj. Gen. Andrew J. Smith to deal with Forrest. Union forces drove the Confederates from the field and Forrest was wounded in the foot, but his forces were not wholly destroyed. He continued to oppose Union efforts in the West for the remainder of the war. Forrest led other raids that summer and fall, including a famous one into Union-held downtown Memphis in August 1864 (the Second Battle of Memphis), and another on a major Union supply depot at Johnsonville, Tennessee. On November 4, 1864, during (the Battle of Johnsonville), the Confederates shelled the city, sinking three gunboats and nearly thirty other ships and destroying many tons of supplies. During Hood's Tennessee Campaign, he fought alongside General John Bell Hood, the newest (and last) commander of the Confederate Army of Tennessee, in the Second Battle of Franklin on November 30. Facing a disastrous defeat, Forrest argued bitterly with Hood (his superior officer) demanding permission to cross the Harpeth River and cut off the escape route of Union Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield's army. He eventually made the attempt, but it was too late."}, {"context": " After his bloody defeat at Franklin, Hood continued on to Nashville. Hood ordered Forrest to conduct an independent raid against the Murfreesboro garrison. After success in achieving the objectives specified by Hood, Forrest engaged Union forces near Murfreesboro on December 5, 1864. In what would be known as the Third Battle of Murfreesboro, a portion of Forrest's command broke and ran. When Hood's battle-hardened Army of Tennessee, consisting of 40,000 men deployed in three infantry corps plus 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry, was all but destroyed on December 15\u201316, at the Battle of Nashville, Forrest distinguished himself by commanding the Confederate rear guard in a series of actions that allowed what was left of the army to escape. For this, he would later be promoted to the rank of lieutenant general on March 2, 1865. A portion of his command, now dismounted, was surprised and captured in their camp at Verona, Mississippi on December 25, 1864, during a raid of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad by a brigade of Brig. Gen. Benjamin Grierson's cavalry division."}, {"context": " In the spring of 1865, Forrest led an unsuccessful defense of the state of Alabama against Wilson's Raid. His opponent, Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson, defeated Forrest at the Battle of Selma on April 2, 1865. A week later, General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant in Virginia. When he received news of Lee's surrender, Forrest also chose to surrender. On May 9, 1865, at Gainesville, Forrest read his farewell address to the men under his command, enjoining them to \"submit to the powers to be, and to aid in restoring peace and establishing law and order throughout the land.\""}, {"context": " With slavery abolished after the war, Forrest suffered a major financial setback as a former slave trader. He became interested in the area around Crowley's Ridge during the war and settled in Memphis, Tennessee. In 1866, Forrest and C.C. McCreanor contracted to finish the Memphis & Little Rock Railroad. The commissary he built as a provisioning store for the 1,000 Irish laborers hired to lay the rails became the nucleus of a town, which most residents called \"Forrest's Town\" and which was incorporated as Forrest City, Arkansas in 1870."}, {"context": " The historian Court Carney writes that Forrest was not universally popular in the white Memphis community; he alienated many of the city's businessmen in his commercial dealings, and he was criticized for questionable business practices that caused him to default on debts. He later found employment at the Selma-based Marion & Memphis Railroad and eventually became the company president. He was not as successful in railroad promoting as in war, and under his direction, the company went bankrupt. Nearly ruined as the result of this failure, Forrest spent his final days running an eight-hundred acre farm on land he leased on President's Island in the Mississippi River, where he and his wife lived in a log cabin. There, with the labor of over a hundred prison convicts, he grew corn, potatoes, vegetables, and cotton profitably, but his health was in steady decline."}, {"context": " During the \"Virginius\" Affair of 1873, some of Forrest's old Southern friends were filibusters aboard the vessel so he wrote a letter to then General-in-Chief of the United States Army William T. Sherman and offered his services in case of war with Spain. Sherman, who in the Civil War had recognized what a deadly foe Forrest was, replied after the crisis settled down. He thanked Forrest for the offer and stated that had war broken out, he would have considered it an honor to have served side-by-side with him."}, {"context": " Forrest was an early member of the Ku Klux Klan (\"KKK\" or simply \"the Klan\"), which was formed by six veterans of the Confederate Army in Pulaski, Tennessee during the spring of 1866, and soon expanded throughout the state and beyond. Forrest became involved sometime in late 1866 or early 1867. A common report is that Forrest arrived in Nashville in April 1867 while the Klan was meeting at the Maxwell House Hotel, probably at the encouragement of a state Klan leader, former Confederate general George Gordon. The organization had grown to the point where an experienced commander was needed, and Forrest was well-suited to the role. In Room 10 of the Maxwell, Forrest was sworn in as a member by John W. Morton. Brian Steel Wills quotes two KKK members who identified Forrest as a Klan leader. James R. Crowe stated, \"After the order grew to large numbers we found it necessary to have someone of large experience to command. We chose General Forrest\". Another member wrote, \"N. B. Forest of Confederate fame was at our head, and was known as the Grand Wizard. I heard him make a speech in one of our Dens\". The title \"Grand Wizard\" was chosen because General Forrest had been known as \"The Wizard of the Saddle\" during the war. According to Jack Hurst's 1993 biography, \"Two years after Appomattox, Forrest was reincarnated as grand wizard of the Ku Klux Klan. As the Klan's first national leader, he became the Lost Cause's avenging angel, galvanizing a loose collection of boyish secret social clubs into a reactionary instrument of terror still feared today.\" Forrest was the Klan's first and only Grand Wizard, and he was active in recruitment for the Klan from 1867 to 1868."}, {"context": " Following the war, the United States Congress began passing the Reconstruction Acts to lay out requirements for the former Confederate States to be readmitted to the Union, to include ratification of the Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth (1870) Amendments to the United States Constitution. The Fourteenth addressed citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws for former slaves, while the Fifteenth specifically secured the voting rights of black men. According to Wills, in the August 1867 state elections the Klan was relatively restrained in its actions. White Americans who made up the KKK hoped to persuade black voters that a return to their pre-war state of bondage was in their best interest. Forrest assisted in maintaining order. It was after these efforts failed that Klan violence and intimidation escalated and became widespread. Author Andrew Ward, however, writes, \"In the spring of 1867, Forrest and his dragoons launched a campaign of midnight parades; 'ghost' masquerades; and 'whipping' and even 'killing Negro voters and white Republicans, to scare blacks off voting and running for office'\"."}, {"context": " In an 1868 interview by a Cincinnati newspaper, Forrest claimed that the Klan had 40,000 members in Tennessee and 550,000 total members throughout the Southern states. He said he sympathized with them, but denied any formal connection. He claimed he could muster thousands of men himself. He described the Klan as \"a protective political military organization... The members are sworn to recognize the government of the United States... Its objects originally were protection against Loyal Leagues and the Grand Army of the Republic...\". After only a year as Grand Wizard, in January 1869, faced with an ungovernable membership employing methods that seemed increasingly counterproductive, Forrest dissolved the Klan, ordered their costumes destroyed\", and withdrew from participation. His declaration had little effect, however, and few Klansmen destroyed their robes and hoods."}, {"context": " After the lynch mob murder of four blacks, arrested for defending themselves at a barbecue, Forrest wrote to Tennessee Governor John C. Brown in August 1874 and \"volunteered to help \u2018exterminate\u2019 those men responsible for the continued violence against the blacks\", offering \"to exterminate the white marauders who disgrace their race by this cowardly murder of Negroes\". The Klan's activity infiltrated the Democrat's campaign for the presidential election of 1868. Prominent ex-Confederates, including Forrest, the Grand Wizard of the Klan, and South Carolina's Wade Hampton, attended as delegates at the 1868 Democratic Convention, held at Tammany Hall in New York City (Tammany Hall was not a building). Forrest rode to the convention on a train that stopped in a small Northern town along the way, where he faced down a bully who wanted to fight the \"damned butcher\" of Fort Pillow. Former Governor of New York Horatio Seymour was nominated as the Democratic presidential candidate, while Forrest's friend, Frank Blair, Jr. was nominated as the Democratic vice presidential candidate, Seymour's running mate. The Seymour-Blair Democratic ticket's campaign slogan was: \"Our Ticket, Our Motto, This Is a White Man's Country; Let White Men Rule.\" The Democratic Party platform denounced the Reconstruction Acts as unconstitutional, void, and revolutionary. The party advocated termination of the Freedman's Bureau and any government policy designed to aid blacks in the South. All of this worked into the Republican's hands, who focused on the Democratic Party's alleged disloyalty during and after the Civil War."}, {"context": " During the presidential election of 1868, the Ku Klux Klan under the leadership of Forrest, and other terrorist groups, used brutal violence and intimidation against blacks and Republican voters. Forrest played a prominent role in the spread of the Klan in the South, meeting with conservative whites in Atlanta several times between February and March 1868. Forrest probably organized a state wide Klan network in Georgia during these visits. On March 31 the Klan struck, killing prominent Republican organizer George Ashburn in Columbus."}, {"context": " The Republicans had nominated one of Forrest's battle adversaries, Union war hero Ulysses S. Grant, for the Presidency at their convention held in October. Klansmen took their orders from their former Confederate officers. In Kansas, there were over 2,000 murders committed to suppress blacks and Republicans from voting. In Georgia, Republicans and blacks received threats and beatings at a higher rate. In Louisiana, 1,000 blacks were killed to suppress Republican voting. The Klan's violence was primarily designed to intimidate voters, targeting black and white supporters of the Republican Party. The Klan's violent tactics backfired, as Grant, whose slogan was \"Let us have peace,\" won the election and Republicans gained a majority in Congress. Grant defeated Horatio Seymour, the Democratic presidential candidate, by a comfortable electoral margin, 214 to 80. The popular vote was much closer as Grant received 3,013,365 (\"52.7 %\") votes, while Seymour received 2,708,744 (\"47.3 %\") votes. Grant lost Kansas, Georgia, and Louisiana, where the violence and intimidation against blacks was most prominent."}, {"context": " Many in the north, including President Grant, backed the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, that gave voting rights to Americans regardless of \"race, color, or previous condition of servitude\". Congress and Grant passed the Enforcement Acts from 1870 to 1871, to protect \"registration, voting, officeholding, or jury service\" of African Americans. Under these laws enforced by Grant and the newly formed Department of Justice, there were over 5,000 indictments and 1,000 convictions of Klan members across the South."}, {"context": " Forrest testified before the Congressional investigation of Klan activities on June 27, 1871. He denied membership, but his individual role in the KKK was beyond the scope of the investigating committee, which wrote, \"our design is not to connect General Forrest with this order, (the reader may form his own conclusion upon this question... .\" The committee also noted, \"The natural tendency of all such organizations is to violence and crime; hence it was that General Forrest and other men of influence in the state, by the exercise of their moral power, induced them to disband\". George Cantor, a biographer of Confederate generals, wrote, \"Forrest ducked and weaved, denying all knowledge, but admitted he knew some of the people involved. He sidestepped some questions and pleaded failure of memory on others. Afterwards, he admitted to 'gentlemanly lies.' He wanted nothing more to do with the Klan, but felt honor bound to protect former associates.\""}, {"context": " On July 5, 1875, Forrest demonstrated that his personal sentiments on the issue of race now differed from those of the Klan when he was invited to give a speech before the Independent Order of Pole-Bearers Association, a post-war organization of black Southerners advocating to improve the economic condition of blacks and to gain equal rights for all citizens. At this, his last public appearance, he made what \"The New York Times\" described as a \"friendly speech\" during which, when offered a bouquet of flowers by a young black woman, he accepted them, thanked her and kissed her on the cheek as a token of reconciliation between the races. Forrest ignored his critics and spoke in encouragement of black advancement and of endeavoring to be a proponent for espousing peace and harmony between black and white Americans."}, {"context": " In response to the Pole-Bearers speech, the Cavalry Survivors Association of Augusta, the first Confederate organization formed after the war, called a meeting in which Captain F. Edgeworth Eve gave a speech expressing unmitigated disapproval of Forrest's remarks promoting inter-ethnic harmony, ridiculing his faculties and judgment and berating the woman who gave Forrest flowers as \"a mulatto wench\". The association voted unanimously to amend its constitution to expressly forbid publicly advocating for or hinting at any association of white women and girls as being in the same classes as \"females of the negro race\". The \"Macon Weekly Telegraph\" newspaper also condemned Forrest for his speech, describing the event as \"the recent disgusting exhibition of himself at the negro [sic] jamboree\" and quoting part of a \"Charlotte Observer\" article, which read \"We have infinitely more respect for Longstreet, who fraternizes with negro men on public occasions, with the pay for the treason to his race in his pocket, than with Forrest and [General] Pillow, who equalize with the negro women, with only 'futures' in payment\"."}, {"context": " Forrest reportedly died from acute complications of diabetes at the Memphis home of his brother Jesse on October 29, 1877. His eulogy was delivered by his recent spiritual mentor, former Confederate chaplain George Tucker Stainback, who declared in his eulogy: \"Lieutenant-General Nathan Bedford Forrest, though dead, yet speaketh. His acts have photographed themselves upon the hearts of thousands, and will speak there forever. Forrest was buried at Elmwood Cemetery in Memphis. In 1904, the remains of Forrest and his wife Mary were disinterred from Elmwood and moved to a Memphis city park that was originally named Forrest Park in his honor, but has since been renamed Health Sciences Park."}, {"context": " On July 7, 2015, the Memphis City Council unanimously voted to remove the statue of Forrest from Health Sciences Park, and to return the remains of Forrest and his wife to Elmwood Cemetery. However, on October 13, 2017, the Tennessee Historical Commission invoked the Tennessee Heritage Protection Act of 2013 and U.S. Public Law 85-425: Sec. 410 to overrule the city. Consequently, Memphis sold the park land to an entity not subject to the Tennessee Heritage Protection Act (Memphis Greenspace), which immediately removed the monument as explained below."}, {"context": " Many memorials have been erected to Forrest, especially in Tennessee and other Southern states. Forrest County, Mississippi is named after him, as is Forrest City, Arkansas. Obelisks in his memory were placed at his birthplace in Chapel Hill, Tennessee and at Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park near Camden. Forrest was elevated in Memphis in particular\u2014where he lived and died\u2014to the status of folk hero. \"Embarrassed by their city's early capitulation during the Civil War, white Memphians desperately needed a hero and therefore crafted a distorted depiction of Forrest's role in the war.\" A memorial to him, the first Civil War memorial in Memphis, was erected in 1905 in a new Nathan Bedford Forrest Park. A bust sculpted by Jane Baxendale is on display at the Tennessee State Capitol building in Nashville. The World War II Army base Camp Forrest in Tullahoma, Tennessee was named after him. It is now the site of the Arnold Engineering Development Center."}, {"context": " , Tennessee had 32 dedicated historical markers linked to Nathan Bedford Forrest, more than are dedicated to all three former Presidents associated with the state combined: Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Andrew Johnson (none of whom were born in Tennessee). The Tennessee legislature established July 13 as \"Nathan Bedford Forrest Day\". A monument to Forrest in the Confederate Circle section of Old Live Oak Cemetery in Selma, Alabama reads \"Defender of Selma, Wizard of the Saddle, Untutored Genius, The first with the most. This monument stands as testament of our perpetual devotion and respect for Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest. CSA 1821\u20131877, one of the South's finest heroes. In honor of Gen. Forrest's unwavering defense of Selma, the great state of Alabama, and the Confederacy, this memorial is dedicated. DEO VINDICE\". As an armory for the Confederacy, Selma provided a substantial part of the South's ammunition during the Civil War. The bust of Forrest was stolen from the cemetery monument in March 2012 and replaced in May of 2015. A monument to Forrest at a corner of Veterans Plaza in Rome, Georgia was erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy in 1909 to honor his bravery for saving Rome from Union Army Colonel Abel Streight and his cavalry."}, {"context": " High schools named for Forrest were built in Chapel Hill, Tennessee and Jacksonville, Florida. In 2008, the Duval County School Board voted 5\u20132 against a push to change the name of Nathan Bedford Forrest High School in Jacksonville. In 2013, the board voted 7-0 to begin the process to rename the school. The school was named for Forrest in 1959 at the urging of the Daughters of the Confederacy because they were upset about the 1954 \"Brown v. Board of Education\" decision. At the time the school was all white, but now more than half the student body is black. After several public forums and discussions, Westside High School was unanimously approved in January 2014 as the school's new name."}, {"context": " In August 2000, a road on Fort Bliss named for Forrest decades earlier was renamed for former post commander Richard T. Cassidy. In 2005, Shelby County Commissioner Walter Bailey started an effort to move the statue over Forrest's grave and rename Forrest Park. Former Memphis Mayor Willie Herenton, who is black, blocked the move. Others have tried to get a bust of Forrest removed from the Tennessee House of Representatives chamber. Leaders in other localities have also tried to remove or eliminate Forrest monuments, with mixed success."}, {"context": " In 1978, Middle Tennessee State University abandoned imagery it had formerly used (in 1951, the school's yearbook, \"The Midlander\", featured the first appearance of Forrest's likeness as MTSU\u2019s official mascot) and MTSU president M.G Scarlett removed the General's image from the university's official seal. The Blue Raiders' athletic mascot was changed to an ambiguous swash-buckler character called the \"Blue Raider\", to avoid association with Forrest or the Confederacy. The school unveiled its latest mascot, a winged horse called \"Lightning\" inspired by the mythological Pegasus, during halftime of a basketball game against rival Tennessee State University on January 17, 1998. The ROTC building at MTSU was named Forrest Hall to honor him in 1958. In 2006, the frieze depicting General Forrest on horseback that had adorned the side of this building was removed amid protests, but a major push to change its name failed on February 16, 2018, when the Tennessee Historical Commission denied Middle Tennessee State University's petition to rename Forrest Hall."}, {"context": " Great-grandson Nathan Bedford Forrest III first pursued a military career in cavalry, then in aviation attained the rank of brigadier general in the United States Army Air Forces where he became the first U.S. general to be killed in action in World War II, while participating in a June 13, 1943 bombing raid over Germany. His family received the Distinguished Service Cross (second only to the Medal of Honor) he was awarded posthumously for staying with the controls of his B-17 bomber while his crew bailed out; the aircraft exploded before Forrest himself could bail out. By the time German air-sea rescue arrived, only one of the crew was still alive in the water."}, {"context": " Forrest is considered one of the Civil War's most brilliant tacticians by the historian Spencer C. Tucker. Forrest fought by simple rules: he maintained, \"[W]ar means fighting and fighting means killing\" and the way to win was \"to get there first with the most men\". Union General William Tecumseh Sherman called him \"that devil Forrest\" in wartime communications with Ulysses S. Grant and considered him \"the most remarkable man our civil war produced on either side\". Forrest became well known for his early use of maneuver tactics as applied to a mobile horse cavalry deployment. He grasped the doctrines of mobile warfare that would eventually become prevalent in the 20th century. Paramount in his strategy was fast movement, even if it meant pushing his horses at a killing pace, to constantly harass his enemy during raids and disrupt supply trains and enemy communications by destroying railroad tracks and cutting telegraph lines, as he wheeled around his opponent's flank. Noted Civil War scholar Bruce Catton writes:"}, {"context": " Forrest is often erroneously quoted as saying his strategy was to \"git thar fustest with the mostest\". Now often recast as \"Getting there firstest with the mostest\", this misquote first appeared in a \"New York Tribune\" article written to provide colorful comments in reaction to European interest in Civil War generals. The aphorism was addressed and corrected as \"Ma'am, I got there first with the most men\" by a \"New York Times\" story in 1918. Though a novel and succinct condensation of the military principles of mass and maneuver, Bruce Catton writes:"}, {"context": " Modern historians generally believe that Forrest's attack on Fort Pillow was a massacre, noting high casualty rates, and the rebels targeting black soldiers. The consensus of recent historians is that Forrest did not order the massacre; after thorough investigation he was not charged with a crime nor dereliction of duty. It was, however, the South's publicly stated position that slaves firing on whites would be killed on the spot, along with Southern whites that fought for the Union, whom the Confederacy considered traitors. According to this analysis, Forrest's troops were carrying out Confederate policy, and were simply obeying orders. By his inaction Forrest showed that he felt no compunction to stop the slaughter, and his repeated denials that he knew a massacre was taking place, or even that a massacre had occurred at all, are not credible. Consequently, despite this isolated incident in his otherwise distinguished career as a general, his role in it was a stigmatizing one for him the rest of his life, both professionally and personally, and contributed to his business problems after the war."}, {"context": " After Forrest's death, \"The New York Times\" reported that \"General Bedford Forrest, the great Confederate cavalry officer, died at 7:30 o'clock this evening at the residence of his brother, Colonel Jesse Forrest,\" but also reported that it would not be for military victories that Forrest would pass into history. Forrest's claims that the Fort Pillow massacre was an invention of northern reporters were directly disputed in letters written by Confederate soldiers to their own families, which described wanton brutality on the part of Confederate troops. The New York newspaper obituary stated:"}, {"context": " Historians have differed in their interpretations of the events at Fort Pillow. Richard L. Fuchs, author of \"An Unerring Fire\", concluded: Andrew Ward downplays the controversy: John Cimprich states: The site is now a Tennessee State Historic Park. Grant himself described Forrest as \"a brave and intrepid cavalry general\" while noting that Forrest sent a dispatch on the Fort Pillow Massacre \"in which he left out the part which shocks humanity to read.\" In the 1990 PBS documentary \"The Civil War\" by Ken Burns, historian Shelby Foote states in Episode 7 that the Civil War produced two \"authentic geniuses\": Abraham Lincoln and Nathan Bedford Forrest. When expressing this opinion to one of General Forrest's granddaughters, she replied after a pause, \"You know, we never thought much of Mr. Lincoln in my family\". Foote also made Forrest a major character in his novel \"Shiloh\", which used numerous first-person stories to illustrate a detailed timeline and account of the battle."}, {"context": " Forrest's legacy as \"one of the most controversial \u2013 and popular \u2013 icons of the war\" still draws heated public debate. A 2011 Mississippi license plate proposal to honor him, by the Sons of Confederate Veterans, revived tensions and raised objections from Mississippi chapter of the NAACP president Derrick Johnson, who compared Forrest to Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein. The Mississippi NAACP petitioned Governor Haley Barbour to denounce the plates and prevent their distribution. Barbour refused to denounce the honor, noting instead that the state legislature would not be likely to approve the plate anyway."}, {"context": " In 2000, a monument to Forrest in Selma, Alabama, was unveiled. On March 10, 2012, it was vandalized and the bronze bust of the general disappeared. In August, a historical society called Friends of Forrest moved forward with plans for a new, larger monument, which was to be 12 feet high, illuminated by LED lights, surrounded by a wrought-iron fence and protected by 24-hour security cameras. The plans triggered outrage and a group of around 20 protesters attempted to block construction of the new monument by lying in the path of a concrete truck. Local lawyer and radio host Rose Sanders said, \"Glorifying Nathan B. Forrest here is like glorifying a Nazi in Germany. For Selma, of all places, to have a big monument to a Klansman is totally unacceptable\". An online petition at Change.org asking the City Council to ban the monument collected 313,617 signatures by mid-September of the same year."}, {"context": " Forrest Park in Memphis was renamed Health Sciences Park in 2013, amid substantial controversy. In light of the 2015 church shooting in Charleston, South Carolina, some Tennessee lawmakers advocated removing a bust of Forrest located in the state's Capitol building. Subsequently, then-Mayor A.C. Wharton urged removal of the statue of Forrest in Health Sciences Park and suggested the relocation of Forrest and his wife to their original burial site in nearby Elmwood Cemetery. In a nearly unanimous vote on July 7, the Memphis City Council passed a resolution in favor of removing the statue and securing the couple's remains for transfer. The Tennessee Historical Commission denied removal on October 21, 2016 under its authority granted by the Tennessee Heritage Protection Act of 2013, which protects war memorials on public property from cities or counties relocating, removing, renaming, or otherwise disturbing them without permission. The City Council then voted on December 20, 2017 to sell Health Science Park to Memphis Greenspace, a new non-profit corporation not subject to the Heritage Protection Act, which removed the statue that same evening. The Sons of Confederate Veterans threatened a lawsuit against the city. On April 18, 2018, the Tennessee House of Representatives punished the city of Memphis, by cutting $250,000 in appropriations for the city's bicentennial celebration, for selling two city parks to Memphis Greenspace, which had removed a statue of Forrest from the Health Sciences Park, and a statue of Confederate President Jefferson Davis from an easement in Fourth Bluff Park."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest Boyhood Home", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan Bedford Forrest Boyhood Home is a historic log house in Chapel Hill, Tennessee, U.S.. It was the childhood home of Confederate General and Ku Klux Klan leader Nathan Bedford Forrest from 1830 to 1833. It is owned by the Sons of Confederate Veterans. The log house was initially built by W.S. Mayfield in the 1820s. When it was acquired by William Forrest, Nathan Bedford Forrest's father, in 1830, the house was significantly extended. Although Forrest was born in another house, he lived in this house with his parents from 1830 to 1833, and it is \"the only home still existing associated with Forrest\" in Tennessee. Forrest later served as a general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War of 1861-1865. Meanwhile, the house was purchased by Stephen W. Rainey in 1833. It remained a private home for the next four decades."}, {"context": " The house was acquired by the state of Tennessee in the 1970s. Since 1997, it belongs to the Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV). As of 2017, the \"caretaker\" of the house is Gene Andrews, a resident of Nashville, Tennessee and a member of the SCV. The house may still be used for \"Civil War re-enactments, music and lectures\". Moreover, it was the location of the music video for \"Josephine\" by Joey + Rory. However, the house is locked behind a \"black metal gate\". The house is \"highly representative\" of Tennessee's vernacular architecture in the 1820s and 1830s. Indeed, \"While most houses in the more settled sections of the state in the 1820s were brick or frame, the farmer or craftsman of the rural areas was still likely to build with logs. Often when prosperity increased, rather than build a new and more imposing house, improvements and additions were made to the log structure.\"  It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since July 13, 1977."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest Bust", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"For the statue in Nashville, see Nathan Bedford Forrest Statue.\" \"For the statue in Memphis, see Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument.\" The Nathan Bedford Forrest Bust is a bust of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest that is displayed in the Tennessee State Capitol in Nashville, Tennessee, U.S. In 1973 Douglas Henry, the Democratic member of the Tennessee Senate for Nashville, proposed a resolution to install a bust of General Forrest in the state capitol; this passed on April 13, 1973. He has been considered a Southern hero of the American Civil War because of his daring military exploits. In contemporary times, some observers have been more troubled by his leadership of the Ku Klux Klan after the war and his pre-war career as a slave trader, when he made a fortune."}, {"context": " Fundraising for the bust was from the sale of 24\" x 30\" reproductions of a Forrest portrait at the Travellers Rest, a historic plantation in the Nashville area. The portrait by Joy Garner had been commissioned in 1973 for Travellers Rest by the Joseph E. Johnston camp of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. The bust was designed by Loura Jane Herndon Baxendale, whose husband was a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. It was installed in the capitol on November 5, 1978. On the day of the bust's dedication, numerous African Americans protested at the capitol. More protests were organized by Black Tennesseans for Action in February 1979 after they were unsuccessful in gaining a meeting with Governor Lamar Alexander to discuss the issue. That month, the bust was \"damaged after someone struck it in the head with a blunt object\". Soon after, two crosses were burned in Nashville, a symbolic intimidation associated with the historic Ku Klux Klan; one of the crosses was burned outside the NAACP headquarters. In October 1980, \"Tex Moore, grand dragon of the Tennessee chapter of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, and others held a news conference in front of the bust.\""}, {"context": " In the wake of the 2015 Charleston church shooting, in which nine African Americans were murdered by a young white supremacist, Democratic Congressman Jim Cooper and state Representative Craig Fitzhugh suggested Forrest's bust should be removed from the Tennessee capitol. Republican Governor Bill Haslam and Senator Bob Corker also agreed. However, its removal was postponed. After the violence of the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, Governor Bill Haslam explicitly called for removal of the bust from the capitol, while Senator Corker suggested it should be moved to the Tennessee State Museum. But the Capitol Commission oversees elements of maintaining the complex. Composed of Secretary of State Tre Hargett, State Treasurer David Lillard, and Comptroller Justin P. Wilson, the Commission voted to reject the removal. Governor Haslam said that he was \"very disappointed\" with this decision.  In December 2017 a legislative bill was proposed to relocate the bust to the Tennessee State Museum."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest High School", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest High School may refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest II", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest II (August 1871 \u2013 March 11, 1931) was an American businessman and activist who served as the 19th Commander-in-Chief of the Sons of Confederate Veterans from 1919 to 1921, and as the Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan for Georgia. Forrest was born in Oxford, Mississippi, in 1871. His grandfather, Nathan Bedford Forrest, was a senior officer of the Confederate States Army who commanded cavalry in the Western Theater of the American Civil War. His only son, Nathan Bedford Forrest III, was a senior officer of the United States Army Air Forces killed in action in the European Theater of World War II.  In the \"Confederate Veteran\", Nathan Bedford Forrest II claimed that he and Tate Brady were making plans together for an \"active campaign throughout Oklahoma\" on behalf of the Sons of Confederate Veterans. He served as Secretary and Business Manager at Lanier University, a college that was sold to the Klan in 1921."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest III", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest III (April 6, 1905 \u2013 June 13, 1943) was a brigadier general of the United States Army Air Forces, and a great-grandson of Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest. He was killed in action in Germany during World War II. Forrest was the first American general to be killed in action during the war in Europe. Forrest was born in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 6, 1905, the son of Nathan Bedford Forrest II and Mattie Patterson (Patton). On November 22, 1930, he married Frances Brassler. According to the Arlington National Cemetery website he had no children, making him the final male Forrest in his great-grandfather's direct line."}, {"context": " He graduated from West Point in 1928 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the cavalry. In 1929, he transferred to the Air Corps and subsequently gained rank rapidly. Promoted to brigadier general in 1942, Forrest was serving as chief of staff of the Second Air Force when he flew missions as an observer with the Eighth Air Force in England. He was reported missing in action when the B-17 Flying Fortress he was in, leading a bombing raid on the German submarine yards at Kiel, went down on June 13, 1943. The other members of the squadron reported seeing parachutes, and hoped that the general had survived. However, Forrest was found dead on September 23, 1943, when his body washed up near a seaplane base at Ruegen Island in Germany. He was buried on September 28, 1943, in a small cemetery near Wiek, R\u00fcgen."}, {"context": " His family was presented his Distinguished Flying Cross, which he was awarded posthumously for staying at the controls of his B-17 bomber while his crew bailed out. The plane exploded before Forrest could bail out. By the time the Seenotdienst (the German air-sea rescue) arrived, only one of the crew was still alive in the water. In 1947, two years after the war ended, his widow requested that he be returned to the United States and buried in Arlington National Cemetery. He was exhumed and reburied in Section 11 at Arlington on November 15, 1949.  Alternate history novelist Harry Turtledove makes Forrest III a significant character in the \"Southern Victory\" series, and a minor character in the standalone novel \"Joe Steele\". However, the \"Southern Victory\" version (who, as an officer of a still-extant Confederacy which has become analogous to Nazi Germany, leads a July 20-style coup attempt against Hitleresque Confederate President Jake Featherston) may be a same-named analog rather than the historical figure."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"For the statue in Nashville, Tennessee, see Nathan Bedford Forrest Statue.\" The Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument is a bronze sculpture by Charles Henry Niehaus, depicting a mounted General Nathan Bedford Forrest wearing a uniform of the Confederate States Army. It was formerly installed in Forrest Park (changed to \"Health Sciences Park\" in 2013) in Memphis, Tennessee. The statue was cast in Paris. Forrest and his wife are buried in front of the monument, after being moved there from Elmwood Cemetery in a ceremony on November 11, 1904. The cornerstone for the monument was laid on May 30, 1901 and the monument was dedicated on May 16, 1905. It was removed on December 20, 2017 and is currently for sale to a buyer who will display it in public."}, {"context": " Sculptor Lorado Taft said of the statue, \"the rider and steed alike have been highly praised for their truth and vigor. A photograph of the model gives promise of one of the best equestrian statues in the country.\" For himself, Taft labels it \"adequate\". The monument was installed thanks in part to Judge Thomas J. Latham's wife Mary, who was a member of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. A 2015 attempt by the Memphis City Council to remove the statue was blocked by the Tennessee Historical Commission in 2016. In September 2017, the Memphis City Council passed an ordinance to remove Confederate statues from public parks, including the Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument and the Jefferson Davis Monument, after October 13, 2017, due in part to increased police expenditure, to control protesters and anti-protesters, since the Unite the Right rally of August."}, {"context": " On December 20, 2017, the Memphis City Council unanimously approved the sale of Health Sciences Park to Memphis Greenspace for $1,000.00, allowing Memphis Greenspace to remove the monument. The monument, along with a statue of Jefferson Davis, were removed that evening. In May 2018, the \"Memphis Flyer\" reported that Memphis Greenspace plans to sell the Nathan Bedford Forrest Monument and the statue of Davis. Potential buyers must be nonprofit organizations who will agree to maintain the statues and display them in public somewhere outside of Shelby County, Tennessee. The following month, \"The Daily News\" revealed that the Memphis Greenpeace had received numerous offers to take the Forrest and Davis statues, including from Tennessee legislators, sites associated with the American Civil War, the Jefferson Davis Presidential Library and Museum, and the city of Savannah, Georgia."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park is a state park in Benton County, Tennessee, in the southeastern United States. The park is situated on the western shore of the Kentucky Lake impoundment of the Tennessee River, just north of the community of Eva. Established in 1929, the park consists of managed by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. The park is named after Confederate General and Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard Nathan Bedford Forrest (1821\u20131877), who conducted operations in the area during the U.S. Civil War. The park encompasses part of Forrest's operational area during the 1864 Battle of Johnsonville, in which Forrest attacked and destroyed a Union supply depot and transfer station on the opposite bank of the river."}, {"context": " Along with the battle site, features in the park include Pilot Knob, which at is one of the highest points in West Tennessee, and the Tennessee River Folklife Center, which interprets life in the lower Tennessee Valley in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Tennessee River enters the Benton County/Humphreys County area from the south, where it absorbs the Duck River and the Beech River, and proceeds northwestward for another before emptying into the Ohio River. Kentucky Lake, created with the completion of Kentucky Dam in 1944, covers a stretch of the river between Kentucky Dam (near Paducah) and Pickwick Landing Dam, near the Tennessee-Alabama border to the south. Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park is situated along the western bank of Kentucky Lake, approximately upstream from Kentucky Dam."}, {"context": " Pilot Knob is the pinnacle of a ridge that extends approximately northwestwardly to the Harmon Creek valley, along the park's northwestern boundary. Much of the park's topography consists of ridges and hollows that run roughly parallel to Pilot Knob Ridge. The park's offices are located on the slopes of Pilot Knob, and the Tennessee River Folklife Center and hiking trailheads are located at its summit. State Route 191, which terminates atop Pilot Knob, connects the park to Interstate 40 and U.S. Route 70 to the south."}, {"context": " The Benton County area has been occupied on a semi-permanent basis for at least 7000 years. In 1940, University of Tennessee archaeologists excavated a substantial Archaic period (8000-1000 BC) site along Cypress Creek, near the park's southern boundary. The actual site\u2014 named the Eva site after the nearby community\u2014 is now submerged by Kentucky Lake. At the Eva site, University of Tennessee archaeologists Thomas Lewis and Madeline Kneburg uncovered 180 human burials and artifacts dating to roughly 5200 BC. The area saw sporadic occupation during the Woodland and Mississippian periods, although the population had dwindled considerably by the 17th century."}, {"context": " By the time Euro-American settlers arrived, the eastern Benton County area was traversed by several well-beaten paths, or \"traces.\" Before inundation, the stretch of the Tennessee River between Benton and Humphreys counties was relatively low, making it a popular crossing point. The Cisco and Middle Tennessee Trace ran north-to-south, connecting the Benton County area with the Pinson Mounds in Madison County to the southwest. Near the modern US-70 bridge, the trail intersected the Lower Harpeth and West Tennessee Trace, which ran east-to-west."}, {"context": " In the Fall of 1864, at the height of the U.S. Civil War, General William T. Sherman captured the city of Atlanta and began making preparations to march south to Savannah. Hoping to lure Sherman northward, General John Bell Hood initiated maneuvers intended to cut Union supply lines in Tennessee. As Hood moved west, General Nathan B. Forrest moved northeast from Corinth, Mississippi, reaching the Tennessee-Kentucky line on October 28, and proceeding south along the river. In early November, Forrest managed to secretly position his artillery on the west bank of the river, opposite the Federal supply depot at Johnsonville. Although most of Forrest's operations were concentrated around the now-submerged sloughs just north of the modern Eva boat ramp, Forrest did manage to position two guns atop Pilot Knob, which offered a more direct line of fire into the Federal fortifications."}, {"context": " During the war, Johnsonville was established as the western terminus of the Nashville and Northwestern Railroad, which connected the Lower Tennessee Valley with Nashville. Massive amounts of food and munitions were stored at Johnsonville, where they awaited transfer from boat-to-train or vice versa. The position was heavily fortified and guarded by 2,000 Union soldiers and several gunboats. When Forrest opened fire on the morning of November 4, however, Union commanders within the fort panicked. Fearing that Forrest would overwhelm the fort, Union troops burned their gunboats and transport vessels, and attempted to evacuate the fort by train. At Waverly, the train abandoned its load of supplies, and continued eastward to Nashville."}, {"context": " Forrest managed to retreat back to Corinth before the arrival of Union reinforcements. Union losses included 8 dead or wounded and 150 captured. Forrest reported 2 dead and 9 wounded. Union forces lost millions of dollars worth of supplies, ammunition, and vessels, and a rumor that Forrest was marching northward caused a general panic among Union forces in the Ohio Valley. The site of Johnsonville (typically called \"Old Johnsonville\" to distinguish from the modern New Johnsonville) is now protected by Johnsonville State Historic Park."}, {"context": " Much of the land along the park's southern section was once owned by the Pafford family, who arrived in the mid-19th century. The Paffords held Independence Day celebrations near the modern park entrance that drew visitors from all over the county, and eventually featured Grand Ole Opry performers. The Paffords aided General Forrest during the Battle of Johnsonville, and eventually served as the park's first caretakers. In December 1929, the state of Tennessee established Nathan Bedford Forrest Memorial Park atop Pilot Knob, which had been donated by the Paffords. A road was built connecting Eva with Pilot Knob, where a memorial consisting of a granite obelisk had been erected. In the mid-to-late 1930s, the Civilian Conservation Corps and Works Progress Administration arrived to build the park's roads, trails, and facilities."}, {"context": " Facilities at Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park include seven rental cabins, an RV campground, two primitive campgrounds, a 64-person group lodge, and three boat ramps. The park maintains approximately of hiking trails, most of which consists of a loop trail with various shortcuts that can shorten the hike to 3, 5, or 10 miles. The Tennessee River Folklife Museum is situated atop Pilot Knob at the end of State Route 191. The museum interprets the life and customs of people living along the lower Tennessee River in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The center includes audio and video recordings, old implements used in musseling and a fully preserved 1950s-era jon boat. The museum also houses a small nature center displaying fish and reptiles commonly found in the area.  After the war, Forrest became the first Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan. Due to the Klan's history of white supremacy and racist violence, controversy has arisen in recent years over memorials and entities named for Forrest, including Nathan Bedford Forrest High School in Jacksonville, Florida, and a proposal in Mississippi to honor Forrest on one of the state's specialty license plates. Nathan Bedford Forrest State Park is often mentioned amidst these controversies."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bedford Forrest Statue", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bedford Forrest Statue is a statue, standing in height, of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest on a horse, shooting behind himself, flanked by Confederate battle flags near Interstate 65 at 701D Hogan Road, Nashville, Tennessee. The monument was designed by Jack Kershaw, a Vanderbilt University alumnus, co-founder of the League of the South, a white nationalist and white supremacist organization, and a former lawyer to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's killer. In the face of public criticism of the installation, Kershaw defended the statue by saying, \"Somebody needs to say a good word for slavery.\""}, {"context": " Statue owner and friend of Kershaw Bill Dorris told NPR in 2011 \"As an artist, mediocre. As a thinker, he (Kershaw) was way ahead of a lot of people in his time.\" Dorris described the process of sculpting Forrest: \"Jack got some materials that I use to make bathtubs with. And he started with a butcher knife. That's the end result that you see out there right now.\" Kershaw told an interviewer that his Forrest is crying: \"Follow me!\" The horse is covered in gold leaf, while Forrest is covered in silver leaf. At 25 feet tall, they are twice life size and the rider is \"perfectly balanced\". Forrest holds a gun, pointed behind him, in his left hand, and a sword in the right hand."}, {"context": " It was installed in 1998 surrounded by 13 Confederate Battle Flags and 13 flag poles flying various other Confederate or state flags on of land privately owned by Nashville businessman Bill Dorris. The property at 701D Hogan Rd is long and narrow, with the Interstate on one side and railway tracks on the other. The monument is visible from Interstate 65 by the northbound shoulder near mile marker 77 between exit 74 and 78 south of downtown Nashville, Tennessee. Around the time the statue was installed, the state cleared vegetation to make it more visible from the Interstate, thanks to the efforts of then-State Senator Douglas Henry (D-Nashville)."}, {"context": " The statue was dedicated by the Joseph E. Johnston Camp of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, who invited \"40 other SCV camps, the United Daughters of the Confederacy and 10 re-enactment groups in period dress.\" The SCV camp calls it one of its most ambitious project they have done and notes the additional sponsorship of The Southern League and Mary Noel Kershaw Foundation The controversial statue has been shot at more than once, vandalized regularly over the years and more recently defaced with Black Lives Matter slogans, but always repaired. Protestors even tried to pull it down by tying it to a train. It is protected by a padlocked gate."}, {"context": " In July 2015 Nashville's Metro Council sought permission to plant landscape screening in front of the monument, but the request was denied by the Tennessee Department of Transportation. The statue was criticized by then-councilwoman (former mayor) Megan Barry in the wake of the 2015 Charleston church shooting, as \"an offensive display of hatred that should not be a symbol for a progressive and welcoming city such as Nashville.\" Governor Haslam said \"It's not a statue that I like and that most Tennesseans are proud of in any way,\" in 2015."}, {"context": " On August 15, 2017 the mayor of nearby Oak Hill, Tennessee Heidi Campbell wrote an open letter to Governor Haslam urging the statue be obscured with landscaping. Just after the unveiling in 1998, Blueshoe Nashville noted that newspaper coverage showed support for and dismay against the statue generally followed racial lines. It also critiqued the statue's quality, remarking that \"Anyone seeing the crazed, pop-eyed look on the statue's face might wonder if the memorial is a homage, or a savage put-down.\""}, {"context": " In 2006, local blogger Brent K. Moore wrote Forrest \"has an expression that one makes after sitting on a thumb tack.\" In 2015, The Washington Post called it \"the weirdest Confederate statue in existence\" and found the statue to have \"a cartoonish and inadvertently satirical tone, incorporating elements of fiberglass and foil-candy wrapper coloring\". The Post called the horse a \"golden steed that looks like it was ripped from a merry-go-round for giants.\" In June 2015 Gawker described the \"alarming\" statue as being created by a \"fierce racist... for another bad man. The statue is so hilariously stupid that we should keep it forever\" for it \"perfectly honors the Confederacy.\""}, {"context": " A November 2015 Vibe.com article entitled \"7 Controversial & Offensive Tourist Attractions In The U.S.\" described the installation as the \"ugliest\" statue of Forrest and noted it is \"surrounded by an overwhelmingly large display of numerous Confederate flags\" Rachel Maddow on MSNBC described it has having \"terrifying marble blue eyes\" and a \"mouth like a circular saw\". Comedian Stephen Colbert first quoted President Trump's tweets about preserving the beautiful monuments in the wake of the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia then immediately mocked this statue by saying \"apparently the Confederacy was founded by skirt-wearing nutcrackers riding wet lizards\" and by mimicking the pose, shooting invisible soldiers following Forrest and riding an imaginary horse around the stage. Similarly, comedian John Oliver referred to the statue as being \"objectively terrifying regardless of context\", describing the statue's face as looking \"like if a nickel did cocaine\"."}, {"context": " In 2017 \"Slate\" called the statue the \"Confederacy's Dumbest Monument. Atlas Obscura called it \"One Confederate statue that accurately reflects the uglyness of its subject.\" In an article titled \"The 10 Most Terrifying Public Statues\" Artnet news wrote the \"statue (is) alarmingly racist, to say that it is also poorly done is a gross understatement\" while Shareart lead \"The 10 Most Bizarre Public Sculptures\" with this effort. Salon described the statue as something \"fashioned by someone who's had a human described to him but has never actually seen one in real life.\""}, {"context": " The Independent went with a simple \"stupid, racist statue\" and called for its removal. Canada's National Post called the \"towering eyesore\" \"one of the most vile Confederate monuments in the great state of Tennessee.\" In late December 2017, the statue was vandalized with pink paint. The owner of the statue and the land it sits on, Bill Dorris, is a Nashville lawyer and businessman. He has regularly given media interviews defending his right to display the Forrest statue and his flags. Dorris denies being a racist. He calls slavery a form of \"social security\" for African Americans."}, {"context": " Dorris has \"turned down requests from the KKK to hold rallies\" at the site. Dorris also argued removing the statue would be detrimental to Nashville's tourism industry, and he compared it to historic plantations in the Nashville area like the Travellers Rest, The Hermitage, the Belle Meade Plantation. When the Metro Region suggested adding vegetation, Dorris told WPLN that \"I've got some 1,800-foot flagpoles. I could put them up starting tomorrow. They're going to have to build a helluva wall and a helluva bunch of trees to block all that.\"  Dorris told Canada's National Post paper the people against Confederate monuments in New Orleans are \"cane blacks,\" who were probably \"illegals to start with.\" Dorris also said \"\"Slavery was never an issue. Nathan Bedford Forrest was not a racist\" and again called slavery a form of \"social security\" for African Americans, \"a cradle-to-the-grave proposition.\""}]}, {"title": "Nathan Begaye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Begaye (1969\u20132010) was a Native American ceramics artist of Navajo and Hopi descent. Nathan Begaye was born in Phoenix, Arizona in 1969 to a Navajo father and a Hopi mother. He was raised by his maternal grandparents in the Third Mesa and Tuba City, Arizona. His aunt was noted Hopi potter Otellie Loloma. His upbringing in the Navajo/Hopi communities was steeped in tribal traditions, and he was schooled in the lore, history, religion, symbolism, and customs of the Navajo and Hopi peoples."}, {"context": " Begaye's interest in pottery began early, at age 10, and he had his first public exhibition only one year later. He learned traditional techniques and pigment recipes from people in his tribal community, both Navajo and Hopi. As they were tribal secrets, he kept these to himself even when he became a teacher later in life. After receiving a SWAIA scholarship, he left home at age 14 to study ceramics at the Institute of American Indian Arts (IAIA) in Sante Fe, NM. Although his upbringing was very conservative, Begaye used unexpected and unorthodox techniques in his work. Said to utilize a \"maverick sense of form, texture, color, and design,\" Begaye's work was often personal and autobiographical."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Belcher", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Belcher (June 23, 1813 \u2013 June 2, 1891) was a United States Representative from Connecticut. He was born in Preston, Connecticut. He completed academic studies and was graduated from Amherst College in 1832. Later, he studied law at the Cambridge Law School before being admitted to the bar in 1836. He commenced practice in Clinton, Connecticut before he moved in 1841 to New London, Connecticut where he engaged in manufacturing tools, hardware, and kitchen utensils. Belcher was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives 1846 and 1847 and also served in the Connecticut Senate in 1850. He was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-third Congress (March 4, 1853 \u2013 March 3, 1855) and was not a candidate for renomination in 1854. He resumed his former manufacturing pursuits and also engaged in banking. Belcher died in New London, Connecticut in 1891 and was buried in Cedar Grove Cemetery."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Benderson Park", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Benderson Park, previously known as North Metro Park and then Cooper Creek Park, is a 600 acre park that incorporates a 400 acre artificial lake in Sarasota, Florida, USA. The lake was excavated to provide fill for the construction of Interstate 75. The lake is a rowing venue and hosted the 2017 World Rowing Championships. The area was originally used as pasture land. The land was excavated for Interstate 75, which runs to the east of the lake. The section of Interstate 75 between U.S. Route 301 north of the lake, to River Road near Venice further south opened in 1981. Cooper Creek flows through the lake and drains in Braden River further north. In 1995, the land changed ownership from APAC-Florida Incorporated to Sarasota County for US$2.2 million. Sarasota County named the area North Metro Park. At the time, access was by dirt road only from The Meadows, a community immediately to the west, and recreational use apart from motor boats was permitted."}, {"context": " In 2003, the Benderson Development Company moved to an area immediately north of the park. A year later, the park's name was changed to Cooper Creek Park. From 2005 onwards, Benderson Development Co. leased the northernmost 101 acres of the park. The company then donated US$1 million to Sarasota County and was given naming rights in return, and the name changed to Nathan Benderson Park on November 20, 2007, after the company's founder. Benderson Development Co. was then given approval to develop 276 acres adjacent to the park, and in return was required to develop a master plan for the park, management plan, and construction plan for further development. The concept plan was approved in 2010, and the development plan the following year. Also in 2010, a non-profit organization was set up for the management of the park \u2013 Suncoast Aquatic Nature Center Associates Inc. (SANCA). North Cattlemen Road was realigned in 2012 so that a regatta course meeting the requirements of the International Rowing Federation (FISA) could be established. In 2013, the lake was lengthened and deepened, and an island created to reduce wave action. Nathan Benderson Park officially opened to the public in 2014. North Cattlemen Road provides the main access to the venue."}, {"context": " During 2009, the first four rowing regattas were held on the lake. In 2013, the President of the United States, Barack Obama, put his support behind Sarasota County's bid to host the 2017 World Rowing Championships. The other applicant for the regatta was Plovdiv in Bulgaria, which had hosted the 2012 World Rowing Championships. Officials from FISA visited Nathan Benderson Park in April 2013. Later in 2013, the championships were awarded to Sarasota. In 2014, the lake was used by the International Breast Cancer Paddlers' Commission for a dragon boating convention. In 2015, the first stage of the Modern Pentathlon World Cup was held on the lake, and in the following year, the final race was held at Nathan Benderson Park. The USRowing Youth Nationals were held on the lake in 2015 and 2017."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Berg", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Berg (born in Spalding, Saskatchewan, Canada) is an internationally recognized \"first class\" operatic bass-baritone. He is a Grammy award winner (2018 Best Opera Recording), and four-time Grammy nominated, a Juno award winner (2002 JUNO award classical album category \u2013 vocal or choral performance) and 2014 Juno Awards nominee After some studies at the University of Western Ontario and the Ma\u00eetrise nationale de Versailles Nathan Berg carried out the majority of his formal musical training at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, England studying with legendary pedagogue Vera R\u00f3zsa. While at the Guildhall School he won prizes in the Kathleen Ferrier Competition,The Royal Overseas League, Peter Pears Competition, Walter Gruner International Lieder Competition and the Guildhall's Gold Medal for Singers joining a list of singers that includes Bryn Terfel and Benjamin Luxon."}, {"context": " The English journalist Bernard Levin once wrote of the young Nathan Berg in The Times; \"A Canadian baritone, Nathan Berg by name, with a voice not only powerful and full of meaning, but of such velvet beauty that the comparison cannot be avoided: surely the young Fischer-Dieskau sounded like this.\". Berg began his career with Handel's Messiah in Paris in December 1992 and quickly became known for his contributions in Early to Classical music periods in opera and concert. Highlights from his earlier career include performances and recordings with French early music group Les Arts Florissants with whom he recorded often (see recording list below). He also recorded Dvorak's Stabat Mater with the late Robert Shaw and the Atlanta Symphony which proved to be Shaw's final recording and a German Lieder disc with pianist Julius Drake."}, {"context": " He has recently established himself as a specialist in the works of Wagner. In 2016 he debuted as Alberich in Das Rheingold with the Minnesota Opera. The 2017/18 season will see Mr. Berg return to the role of Holl\u00e4nder at the Cincinnati Opera Festival, Alberich in Das Rheingold with Op\u00e9ra de Montr\u00e9al and making his debuts as Wotan in Das Rheingold at the Badisches Staatstheatre, Karlsruhe, Germany and Alberich in Siegfried at the National Taichung Theater, Taiwan. He will also be covering the roles of Alberich in the Metropolitan Opera\u2019s complete Ring in the 18/19 season."}, {"context": " In 2013 Nathan debuted at Moscow's Bolshoi Opera in the title role of Wagner's Flying Dutchman and returned to New York's Carnegie hall in Haydn's Creation with Roger Norrington. In the same season Mr. Berg performed with the Houston Symphony in Berg's Wozzeck and the Valencia's Palau de les Arts in Mozart's Magic Flute. in 2014 he had his concert debut in the role of Alberich (Wagner's Reingold) with Myung-Whun Chung conducting. In 2015 Mr. Berg made his debut at the Teatro Alla Scala, Milan in the world premier of Battistelli's opera CO2. In 2016 he premiered in the role of Bluebeard in Bart\u00f3k's Bluebeard's Castle directed by Mariusz Treli\u0144ski (co-production with the Metropolitan Opera, New York) at the Polish National Opera, Warsaw and the role of Vodnik in Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Rusalka at the National Center for the Performing Arts, Beijing. In yet another stage debut in 2016 Nathan \"made a star turn, from beginning to end, as a grumpy and grizzled Albrecht\u201d in Minnesota Opera's Rheingold. In 2017 Nathan had his debut at the Salzburg Festival alongside Bartoli in Handel's Ariodante and Rossini's La Donna del Lago."}, {"context": " His career has moved among recital, concert and opera. In recital he has appeared at the Wigmore Hall in London, Lincoln Center in New York, Musee d'Orsay in Paris, BBC Radio Studios in London, the Aix-en-Provence Festival in France, the Winspear Centre in Canada and the Edinburgh Festival in Scotland. with pianists Graham Johnson, Julius Drake, Roger Vignoles, Michael McMahon and Martin Katz. Mr. Berg's early work in concert and opera concentrated on Early Music and Classical. He has since also engaged in Romantic and later with recent operatic debuts as Wagner's Dutchman, and Alberich, Puccini's Scarpia and Bartok's Bluebeard and in concert with Mahler's Kindertotenlieder. A bass-baritone with \"a first-class voice\" (Boston Globe), he has worked with conductors including Abbado, Boulez, Davis, Dohn\u00e1nyi, Hogwood, Jacobs, Jurowski, McGegan, Mackerras, Nelson, Spano, Zukerman, Masur, Dutoit, Salonen, Eschenbach, Hogwood, Maazel, Marlot, Norrington, Slatkin, Christie, Herreweghe, Tortelier, Leppard, Rilling, Haenchen, Ozawa, Welser-M\u00f6st and Tilson Thomas. He has performed in concert with major orchestras such as the New York Philharmonic, Cleveland Symphony, Berlin Philharmonic, Chicago Symphony, San Francisco Symphony, National Symphony (Washington), Los Angeles Philharmonic, Atlanta Symphony, Boston Symphony, Montreal Symphony, National Arts Centre Orchestra, Toronto Symphony, Colorado Symphony, St Paul Chamber Orchestra, St Louis Symphony, Handel and Haydn Society, Seattle Symphony, Orchestra of St. Luke's, Minnesota Orchestra, Philadelphia Orchestra, Houston Symphony, London Philharmonic, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, Les Arts Florissants, City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Freiburg Baroque, Les Talens Lyriques, Concert d\u2019Astree, English Chamber Orchestra, BBC Symphony, Budapest Festival Orchestra, Gulbenkian Orchestra, Israel Philharmonic, Singapore Symphony, S\u00e3o Paulo Symphony and Concertgebouw Orchestra. Apart from these orchestras' home concert halls his performances have also taken place at prestigious venues and festivals such as Carnegie Hall, the Hollywood Bowl, The Saratoga Festival, Tanglewood, The Grant Park Festival in Chicago, and Vienna's Musikverein. Among his operatic work he has appeared in Mozart's Figaro, Don Giovanni, Guglielmo and Leporello (a role which Berg won the 2005\u20132006 Austin Critics Table Awards award for Best Male Singer), Puccini's Scarpia, Marcello and Coline, Wagner's Dutchman, Verdi's Ferrando, Rossini's Alidoro, Rameau's Huascar and multiple Handel roles (for example, Hercules, Zoroastro, Achilla) in such places as Bolshoi, Glyndebourne, Paris National Opera, Netherlands Opera, La Monnaie, New York City Opera, English National Opera, Welsh National Opera, Aix-en-Provence Festival, Th\u00e9\u00e2tre des Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es Teatro Verdi in Trieste, Op\u00e9ra de Dijon, Op\u00e9ra de Lyon, Royal Swedish Opera, Th\u00e9\u00e2tre du Capitole in Toulouse, Opera de Lille, Vancouver Opera, Calgary Opera, Edmonton Opera, Austin Lyric, Arizona Opera, Utah Opera, Opera de Nice, and the Bavarian State Opera."}, {"context": " Berg is an established recording artist with over thirty CD and DVD recordings to his name. In 2015 he was featured in releases of Rameau's Les Indes Galantes with the Bordeaux National Opera (DVD/BLUERAY) and a new recording of Dvo\u0159\u00e1k's Requiem with Philippe Herrewege and the Royal Flemish Philharmonic. He has recently appeared on a DVD releases of Lully's Armide conducted by William Christie and directed by Robert Carson and the 2011 production of Handel's Giulio Cesare (Opera National de Paris with Natalie Dessay conducted by Emmanuelle Haim). In 2012 he appeared as bass soloist on a recording of Beethoven's 9th Symphony with Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony (released in 2013), and recorded the role of Zoroastro in Handel's Orlando with Pacific Baroque released by ATMA Classique (2014 Juno award nominee) also in 2013. A few examples of earlier celebrated recordings featuring Nathan Berg are his 2005 Jan\u00e1\u010dek's Glagolitic Mass with the Chicago Symphony conducted by Pierre Boulez, 1999 Dvo\u0159\u00e1k Stabat Mater with Robert Shaw and the Atlanta Symphony (Robert Shaw's last recording), 2002 Mozart's Requiem with Violins de Roy and his 1994 Messiah with Les Arts Florissants and William Christie."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Birnbaum", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Birnbaum (; pseudonyms: \"Mathias Acher\", \"Dr. N. Birner\", \"Mathias Palme\", \"Anton Skart\", \"Theodor Schwarz\", and \"Pantarhei\"; 16 May 1864 \u2013 2 April 1937) was an Austrian writer and journalist, Jewish thinker and nationalist. His life had three main phases, representing a progression in his thinking: a Zionist phase (c. 1883 \u2013 c. 1900); a Jewish cultural autonomy phase (c. 1900 \u2013 c. 1914) which included the promotion of the Yiddish language; and religious phase (c. 1914\u20131937) when he turned to Orthodox Judaism and became staunchly anti-Zionist."}, {"context": " He married Rosa Korngut (1869\u20131934) and they had three sons: Solomon (Salomo) Birnbaum (1891\u20131989), Menachem Birnbaum (1893\u20131944), and Uriel Birnbaum (1894\u20131956). Birnbaum was born in Vienna into an Eastern European Jewish family with roots in Austrian Galicia and Hungary. His father, Menachem Mendel Birnbaum, a merchant, hailed from Ropshitz, Galicia, and his mother, Miriam Birnbaum (n\u00e9e Seelenfreund), who was born in northern Hungary (in a region sometimes called the Carpathian Rus), of a family with illustrious rabbinic lineage, had moved as a child to Tarnow, Galicia, where the two met and married."}, {"context": " From 1882 to 1886, Birnbaum studied law, philosophy and Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna. In 1883, at the age of 19, he founded Kadimah, the first Jewish (Zionist) student association in Vienna, many years before Theodor Herzl became the leading spokesman of the Zionist movement. While still a student, he founded and published the periodical \"Selbstemanzipation!\", often written in large part by Birnbaum himself. In it he coined the terms \"Zionistic\", \"Zionist\", \"Zionism\" (1890), and \"political Zionism\" (1892)."}, {"context": " Birnbaum played a prominent part in the First Zionist Congress (1897) where he was elected Secretary-General of the Zionist Organization. He was associated with and was one of the most important representatives of the cultural, rather than political, side of Zionism. However, he left the Zionist Organization not long after the Congress. He was unhappy with its negative view of Diaspora Jewry and the transformation of the Zionist ideals into a party machine. His next phase was to advocate Jewish cultural autonomy, or Golus nationalism, concentrating in particular on the Jews of eastern Europe. He advocated for the Jews to be recognized as a people among the other peoples of the empire, with Yiddish as their official language. He ran (in Buczacz, eastern Galicia) on behalf of the Jews (and with the support of the local Ukrainians) as candidate for the Austrian parliament. Although he had a majority of the votes, his election was thwarted by corruption of the electoral process by the local Polish faction."}, {"context": " He was chief convener of the Conference for the Yiddish Language held in Czernowitz, August 30\u00a0\u2013September 3, 1908. It was the first Yiddish-language conference ever to take place. At the conference, he took the place of his colleague and fellow Yiddish activist Sholem Aleichem who was critically ill. From about 1912 onwards, Birnbaum became increasingly interested in Orthodox Judaism, and he became a fully observant Orthodox Jew in about 1916. He continued to act particularly as an advocate for the Jews of eastern Europe and the Yiddish language. From 1919 to 1922, he was General Secretary of the Agudas Yisroel, a widely-spread and influential Orthodox Jewish organization. He founded the society of the \"Olim\" (Hebrew for the \"Ascenders\"), a society with a specific program of action dedicated to the spiritual ascent of the Jewish people."}, {"context": " Birnbaum, decrying political Zionism, 1919: And is it at all possible that we, who regard Judaism as our one and only treasure, should ever be able to compete with such expert demagogues and loud self-advertisers as they [the Zionists]? It is surely not necessary that we should. We are, after all, still the mountains and they the grain, and all we need to do is to gather all our forces in a world organization of religious Jews, and it will follow of itself, and without the application of any great political cunning on our part, that we shall have it in our power to prevent what must needs be prevented and to carry out what we have to carry out. But there is no need first to create this world organization of religious Jews. It is already in existence. The world knows its name, it is Agudas Yisroel [The Union of Israel]."}, {"context": " He continued to write and lecture. His most well-known publication of this period of his life was \"Gottes Volk\", 1918 (German), \"God's Folk\", 1921 (Yiddish), translated into Hebrew as \"Am Hashem\" (1948), and translated into English under the title \"Confession\" (1946), slightly abridged. In 1933, at the time of the Nazi rise to power, Birnbaum and his wife, together with their son Menachem (an artist) and family, who at that time were all living in Berlin, fled to Scheveningen, Netherlands, with the help of businessman and diplomat Henri B. van Leeuwen (1888-1973). There, Birnbaum, van Leeuwen, and banker Daniel Wolfe published the anti-Zionist newspaper \"Der Ruf\" (\"The Call\"). (Menachem and his family were murdered by the Nazis in 1944.) At the same time, their son Solomon (Professor of Yiddish and Hebrew paleography) and his family fled from Hamburg to England. Their other son, Uriel, an artist and poet, and his family fled from Vienna to the Netherlands in 1939. Van Leeuwen, also an Orthodox Jew, became a Dutch anti-Zionist leader and Bergen-Belsen survivor.  Birnbaum died in Scheveningen in 1937 after a period of severe illness. An essay on Nathan Birnbaum's activities within Orthodox Judaism - including information on the Olim (\"Ascenders\") - may be found at: \"Der Aufstieg\": Dr. Nathan Birnbaum ZT\"L, Ascent and Agudah By Rabbi Yosef Gavriel Bechhofer."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Birnboim", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Birnboim (; born 27 November 1950, Tel Aviv) is a chess International master from Israel. Birnboim played for Israel in five Chess Olympiads. He won individual silver medal at Buenos Aires 1978. He was Israeli Champion in 1976, 1980 and 1986. He played twice in zonal tournaments: at Randers 1982, he took 11th place and at Munich 1987 he took 4th place. In 1986, he took 5th in Jerusalem. Birnboim was awarded the International Master (IM) title in 1978."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bishop", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan James Bishop (born 15 October 1999) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Southend United. Bishop joined Southend United at a young age and first appeared in the senior squad towards the end of the 2016\u201317 campaign, appearing as unused substitute. His introduction into the first-team squad caught the eye of several Premier League sides including Tottenham Hotspur. Following this, Bishop spent time on trial at West Ham United, but was unable to secure a contract and instead returned to Southend for the 2017\u201318 campaign.  On 23 December 2017, Bishop went onto make his professional debut during Southend's 3\u20131 home defeat against Scunthorpe United, replacing the injured Mark Oxley at half-time."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bistritzky", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bistritzky (Hebrew \u05e0\u05ea\u05df \u05d1\u05d9\u05e1\u05d8\u05e8\u05d9\u05e6\u05e7\u05d9 , Russia 1896-Tel Aviv, 1980) was a Russian-born Israeli writer and translator. Nathan Bistritzky (Agmon) came to Palestine in 1920, and was a member of the senior staff of the JNF from 1922 till retirement in 1952. He was best known for his dramatic works, including a libretto for Alexander Tansman on the false messiah Shabtai Tzvi, and a work on Judas Iscariot."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bizet", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bizet (born 27 April 1997) is a French footballer who plays for AJ Auxerre as a forward."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blacklock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Blacklock (born 4 April 1976) is an Australian former professional rugby league and, briefly, rugby union footballer of the 1990s and 2000s. An Australia national rugby league representative , he played for the Sydney City Roosters, the St. George Dragons before they merged to form the St. George Illawarra Dragons, with whom he continued playing, becoming the National Rugby League's top try-scorer for three consecutive seasons from 1999 to 2001. Blacklock also played in the European Super League for English club, Hull FC, with whom he won the 2005 Challenge Cup."}, {"context": " Born in Tingha, New South Wales, Blacklock went on to gain the nickname, \"Tingha Tornado\". Blacklock began his professional career in 1995 at the Sydney City Roosters, before moving to the St George Dragons where he played between 1997 and 1998. In 1998, playing for the St George Dragons, he scored 20 tries from 22 games, the second highest in the competition that year. From 1999 to 2002, he played for the newly formed joint venture St George Illawarra Dragons. He played on the wing for the Dragons in their 1999 NRL Grand Final loss to Melbourne. In 1999, Blacklock scored 24 tries from 24 matches, the highest that year. Blacklock was the top try scorer in the Australian National Rugby League competition for three consecutive seasons whilst playing for the St George Illawarra Dragons between 1999 and 2001. It was the first time since the 1920s in Australian rugby league that a player had topped the try scoring list for three consecutive seasons. Blacklock was the first ever player to score 20 or more tries in 4 consecutive seasons."}, {"context": " In 2000 Blacklock scored 25 tries from 26 matches. In 2001 he scored an incredible 27 tries from 28 matches, thereby completing his treble as top try scorer. At the end of the 2001 NRL season, Blacklock went on the 2001 Kangaroo tour. Blacklock was first selected for the Australian team in 2001, scoring two tries in Australia's 54-12 win over Papua New Guinea. He played one further Test, the Third Test against Great Britain at Wigan in 2001. Blacklock was controversially omitted from the NSW Blues 2001 State of Origin team despite being the stand out winger of the competition. State selectors claimed that Blacklock's omission was necessary due to his small size and possible deficiencies in defence, because he would have to mark up against larger wingers such as Wendell Sailor or Lote Tuqiri. Ironically the NSW Blues lost the series 2-1 and were humiliated in game 3 at AAMI Stadium by 40-14, where QLD wingers Lote Tuqiri and Wendell Sailor, as well as QLD centre Chris Walker ran riot over the selected NSW wingers Adam MacDougall and Jamie Ainscough, Ainscough coincidentally Blacklock's Dragons wing partner."}, {"context": " During the 2002 NRL season Blacklock was granted a release from his contract with the Dragons in order to play rugby union. Some speculate that this move was motivated by the disappointment Blacklock felt after not being selected for State of Origin, despite being the leading try scorer three years running. After a short stint playing rugby union with the New South Wales Waratahs, Blacklock returned to the Dragons during the latter half of the 2003 NRL season, where he again proved his worth by scoring 14 tries in 12 games. 2004 was an average year for Blacklock, where injuries kept him off the field for long periods of time. Blacklock returned to help the Dragons at the end of the year, which included scoring crucial tries in the Dragons' round 25 come from behind win against Manly, as well as their narrow loss to the Panthers during the first week of the finals."}, {"context": " From 1997 to 2004, Nathan Blacklock played 137 first grade games for the Dragons, scoring 120 tries and 14 goals for a total of 508 points, giving Blacklock one of the best try scoring strike rates of any Rugby League player. In his entire playing career from 1995 to 2004, Blacklock played 142 career first grade games. During that time he scored 121 tries and kicked 14 goals for a total of 512 points. At the end of 2004, Nathan Blacklock left the NRL in order to play in the European Super League for English team Hull F.C. In his first season with Hull F.C. he scored 22 tries in all competitions, including a hat-trick away to the Huddersfield Giants and at home to Leigh Centurions. He played for Hull on the wing in the 2005 Challenge Cup Final victory against the Leeds Rhinos. In August 2006, it was announced that Blacklock would have to retire from all forms of football due to a chronic knee injury. Blacklock had been planning to retire from the game at the end of the season but when the extent of his injury was discovered, the club decided to release Blacklock from his contract as he was no longer able to play. After his retirement was announced, Blacklock came out and stated, \"I'm disappointed I've had to call it a day, but I simply can't give the 100% I want to anymore because of injuries. I can't put my heart and soul into playing. Everyone at the club has been great to me and I wish the team all the best for the play-offs and the future.\" At the time of the news, Hull were sitting second on the European Super League table and were a real chance to reach the Grand Final at Old Trafford for the first time in the Super League era. Hull coach Peter Sharp added that \"`Tingha' has enjoyed a marvellous career, he has achieved some things in rugby league that most people can only dream about.  In 2009 Blacklock played two games for the Tuggeranong Vikings. Nathan also played for the Muswellbrook Rams in the group 21 league."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blake", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Blake (born 27 January 1972) is a Welsh former professional footballer, who played in the Premier League for several clubs and also represented his country at international level. Blake was relegated from the Premier League five times, a record he holds jointly with Hermann Hrei\u00f0arsson. He was relegated in 1993\u201394 at Sheffield United, twice for Bolton Wanderers in 1995\u201396 and 1997\u201398, in the following season for Blackburn Rovers and in the 2003\u201304 season while at Wolverhampton Wanderers."}, {"context": " Blake was a trainee at Chelsea but was released in 1990, without graduating to the first team. He moved back to his home-city club Cardiff City after this, where he quickly made his senior debut against Bristol Rovers in March. He quickly rose to being a first team regular in 1990\u201391 and went on to become a firm favourite with fans. He helped the club to the Third Division title in 1992\u201393, scoring 11 times, and made a strong start to life in the third tier the next season, scoring 14 goals in 20 games. It was during this season that he rose to national prominence when he scored a spectacular goal against Manchester City to send them crashing out of the FA Cup. This form attracted Premier League Sheffield United to snap him up for \u00a3300,000 in February 1994. In total, he scored 40 goals in 164 appearances for the Welsh side."}, {"context": " Blake scored five goals in the remainder of Sheffield United's top flight campaign, but could not halt relegation. He then finished as the \"Blades\"' top scorer in the next two seasons, but neither season saw the club mount a serious promotion challenge in Division One. During the 1995\u201396 season, his goalscoring again won him a move to the Premier League, as he joined Bolton Wanderers in December 1995 in a \u00a31,200,000 deal. Blake failed to make an immediate impact at Bolton Wanderers and only managed one league goal as they dropped out of the Premier League after a solitary season. He rediscovered his goalscoring prowess in the 1996\u201397 season though, as he notched 19 league goals to fire Bolton back to the top flight as champions. The next season saw his best seasonal tally in the top flight as he bagged 12 goals, however this couldn't prevent yet another relegation for the club after one season."}, {"context": " He started the 1998\u201399 season brightly, with 6 goals in the opening 12 games, which won him his third move back to the Premier League with Blackburn Rovers in a \u00a34.25m deal in October 1998. History repeated itself though for Blake as he again suffered the drop in a season that saw him manage just 3 goals. The striker remained at Ewood Park for two full seasons, the second of which saw him again win promotion, but he managed only 9 goals over these seasons. He started the club's return in the top flight, and scored their opening goal away at Derby County, but was swiftly returned to Division One when he was sold to Wolverhampton Wanderers in September 2001 for an initial \u00a31.5m fee. Blake, who had a strained relationship with Blackburn manager Graeme Souness, was offered the chance to stay and fight for a place in the side but decided to accept the transfer."}, {"context": " Blake quickly refound his form at First Division Wolves, scoring on his debut against Stockport County, and ending the season with 11 goals. However, he missed out on another promotion as the club suffered a late slump to fall into the play-offs where they lost to Norwich City. The next season saw Blake better his tally, despite suffering a broken foot during a match against Portsmouth in November 2002, as his 12 goals helped the club go one step further as they won the play-offs. Blake himself scored in the 3\u20130 final win over his former club Sheffield United, held in his homecity of Cardiff."}, {"context": " His final crack at the Premier League was hindered by a year of niggling injuries that kept him sidelined for the majority of the games. He managed just one goal, against Newcastle United, from 13 appearances as the club proved unable to survive. This relegation gave Blake the unenviable distinction of the player suffering the most Premier League relegations with five different seasons ending in the drop, a record that has since been matched by Hermann Hrei\u00f0arsson. Blake left the club in acrimonious circumstances, having fallen out of favour, Blake fell out with manager Dave Jones after a proposed move to Portsmouth fell through when Wolves continually raised their asking price for Blake before eventually cancelling the deal."}, {"context": " Blake was released by Wolves upon their relegation in 2004, after making 85 appearances, scoring 26 times in all competitions. He joined fellow relegated club Leicester City on a one-year contract after having also had a trial at Sunderland. His opportunities here were mostly only as a substitute and he never scored a league goal for the \"Foxes\", but did score once in a League Cup defeat to Preston North End. Failing to make an impact, he was instead loaned out to Leeds United in January 2005, where he managed the final goal of his league career against Coventry City. His loan was cut short by a ruptured hamstring and he returned to Leicester, but did not feature again before being released by the club in June 2005."}, {"context": " His professional career derailed as he was given a six-month suspension in August 2005 for testing positive for a recreational drug. After serving his suspension, he had a trial at Stoke City but decided he was unwilling to commit to playing full-time anymore. Instead, he spent two months playing for non-league Newport County, where he had originally been a trainee, before his deal ended in October 2006. Before breaking through as a footballer, Blake fell foul of the law and was prosecuted for theft from a fruit machine in London. Following his retirement from professional football in 2006, he set up and runs his own property management company in his native Wales."}, {"context": " On 27 January 2012 following several race related scandals in the English game, Blake came out to say whilst he was a player he was sent a racially motivated death threat after withdrawing from a Wales squad. Blake won the award for Best Supporting Actor at Film Fest Cymru 2014 for his role in short film The Homing Bird, in which he plays a football coach. He had been nominated the previous year in the same category for his debut role in Say It. Born in Wales and of Jamaican descent, Blake won 29 caps for Wales, scoring 4 times. He made his debut on 9 March 1994 in a 1\u20133 friendly loss to Norway, that marked the only game of John Toshack's first spell in charge. He scored his first goal against Moldova in a 1\u20133 Euro 96 qualifying defeat. Blake refused to play for Wales team manager Bobby Gould after accusing Gould of making a racist comment in training His other three international goals came against Turkey (August 1997), Norway (October 2000) and Poland (June 2001). He also set the unfortunate record of being the first player to score an international goal at Wales' Millennium Stadium when he put through his own net against Finland on 29 March 2000.  He announced his retirement in September 2004, 10 months after playing his final match in the Euro 2004 play-off loss to Russia."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blecharczyk", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Nate\" Blecharczyk (born 1983) is an American billionaire businessman. He is the co-founder and chief strategy officer of Airbnb, and chairman of Airbnb China. Blecharczyk was also the company's first chief technology officer. Blecharczyk was born in 1983, the son of Sheila (n\u00e9e Underwood) and Paul Steven Blecharczyk. He grew up in an upper-middle-class family in Boston, Massachusetts. During high school, he made money by creating his own software business. His web-hosting business provided services to spammers and was once listed on the Spamhaus's \"Registry of Known Spam Operators (ROKSO)\" which lists the top spamming services. He continued writing programs while attending Harvard University in pursuit of a Bachelor of Science degree in Computer Science, and made enough money to pay his tuition before abandoning his web-hosting business to focus on his studies in 2002. He was also on the business staff of \"The Harvard Crimson\" during his time at Harvard."}, {"context": " Blecharczyk began his career as an engineer at OPNET Technologies in 2005. He served as a lead developer at Batiq in 2007. In 2008, Blecharczyk partnered with Brian Chesky and Joe Gebbia to found Airbnb, he served as the company's first chief technology officer and coded the company's original website using Ruby on Rails. Later that year, after failing to raise funding, the founders bought mass quantities of cereal, designed packaging branded as '\"Obama O's\" and \"Cap'n McCain's\" cereal to sell at the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado. Originally intended as a marketing ploy, the company sold enough cereal to raise $30,000, and eventually attracted the attention of Y combinator co-founder Paul Graham who gave them $20,000 in early 2009 and accepted the company into the Y Combinator's seed funding program."}, {"context": " Blecharczyk is credited with overseeing Airbnb's 2015 expansion into Cuba. On June 1, 2016, Blecharczyk, Chesky and Gebbia joined Warren Buffett and Bill Gates' 'The Giving Pledge', a select group of billionaires who have committed to give the majority of their wealth away. In early 2017, Blecharczyk transitioned to chief strategy officer at Airbnb. He was listed as the 474th richest person in the world, with an estimated wealth of US$3.8 billion according to \"Forbes\" 2017 \"The World's Billionaires List\". Blecharczyk was announced as the chairman of Airbnb China, also known as Aibiying, in October 2017.  Blecharczyk resides in San Francisco, California. He is married to Elizabeth Morey Blecharczyk, a neonatologist. They have two children."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blee", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Blee (born 7 September 1990) is a professional Australian rules football player who played for the Port Adelaide Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). He was recruited by the club in the 2011 National Draft, with pick #51. Blee made his debut in Round 20, 2012, against at York Park."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blissett", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Blissett (born 29 June 1990) is an English professional footballer who plays as a forward for League Two club Macclesfield Town. He has also made appearances for Kidderminster Harriers, Cambridge United, Bristol Rovers, Tranmere Rovers, Torquay United and Plymouth Argyle. Born in West Bromwich, Blissett had youth spells at Staffordshire University and Kidsgrove Athletic. He joined Romulus in the 2011 summer, after having a successful trial, and scored 13 goals in his only season at the club."}, {"context": " On 17 August 2012 Blissett signed a one-year deal with Conference Premier side Kidderminster Harriers. On 4 March of the following year, after being rarely used, he joined fellow league team Cambridge United in a one-month loan deal, with Michael Gash moving in the opposite direction. Blissett also had two loan stints at Hednesford Town in 2014. On 20 November of that year he joined Bristol Rovers; initially in a loan deal, he signed permanently in January 2015. After achieving promotion with Bristol Rovers in 2015, Blissett was loaned to Tranmere Rovers on 21 August. He returned to his parent club in October, and made his Football League debut on 20 October, coming on as a second-half substitute for Matt Taylor in a 0\u20130 home draw against Notts County. He was also a used substitute in a 2\u20130 win against Carlisle United F.C."}, {"context": " Whilst at Bristol Rovers, the forward was loaned out to both Tranmere Rovers and Lincoln City. He played 5 times (scoring once) for Tranmere, and played 3 times for Lincoln. On 14 January 2016 Nathan penned an eighteen-month contract with Torquay with the agreement being initially until the end of the season, with the option of another year. He made 17 appearances for Torquay in which he scored 8 goals. In the 2016\u201317 season, Blissett played half a season for Torquay before making the move up to League 2 with promotion hopefuls Plymouth Argyle."}, {"context": " In the January transfer window of the 2016\u201317 season, Nathan Blissett signed a deal with Plymouth Argyle worth \u00a315,000. He was the first player to have a fee paid by Argyle since 2012. Blissett scored his first goal for the club in a 1\u20131 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers. On 15 January 2018, Blissett joined Macclesfield Town on a loan until the end of the season. Blissett went on to score 5 goals in 16 appearances, helping Macclesfield Town to win the National League. After his release from Plymouth Argyle, Blissett went on to sign a permanent deal with Macclesfield Town .  Blissett's uncle, Luther Blissett, was also a footballer and a forward. He notably represented Watford, Bournemouth, Milan and Derry City, aside from appearing in 14 matches and scoring three goals for England at full international level. Bristol Rovers Plymouth Argyle Macclesfield Town"}]}, {"title": "Nathan Blockley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Blockley (born 15 June 1992) is a Scottish footballer who plays as a midfielder for Scottish League One side Stenhousemuir. Blockley started his career as a youth player with Glasgow side Queen's Park. In 2011, he signed a contract with Airdrie United. At the end of the 2014\u201315 season, Blockley was released after four years with The Diamonds., signing for Peterhead in July 2015."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bock (born 20 March 1983) is an Australian rules footballer in the Australian Football League (AFL). He played for the Adelaide Football Club between 2002 and 2010, and announced in August 2010 that he would join the new Gold Coast Football Club in 2011. He was elevated off the Adelaide Football Club's rookie list at the start of the 2003 season after being drafted with selection 25 in the 2002 Rookie Draft from Woodville-West Torrens in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL)."}, {"context": " Debuting with the Adelaide Football Club in 2004 as a 21-year-old, he did well in Adelaide's forward line. On his debut (Round 5 April 23, 2004) he goaled with each of his first two kicks, and he had 94 disposals and kicked 8 goals in his first ten games. Since then, under the coaching of Neil Craig, he has been transformed into a tough centre half-back. Bock missed the first 7 rounds of the 2005 season, but returned in round 8 and showed signs that he and All-Australian defender Ben Rutten would become one of the best defensive combinations in the AFL, a promise the duo delivered on in the next few years. Bock has not lost his forward origin, either; he kicked two goals from tight angles in the third quarter against Fremantle in the 2006 Qualifying Final as Adelaide came from behind to win, and replicated the feat late in the Preliminary Final against West Coast, this time unsuccessfully."}, {"context": " In Brad Johnson's 300th game for the Western Bulldogs in round 1, 2008, with Adelaide trailing by four points with only seconds remaining, Bock took a mark in the left forward pocket, about 45 metres out from goal and on a 45 degree angle. Bock missed the shot as the siren sounded and Adelaide lost the game. However, Bock recovered from this to have a fine season, in which he won AFL All-Australian selection as the team's centre half-back. He also won the 2008 Crows Club Champion award with 162 votes and the club's Most Valuable Player award."}, {"context": " Bock was charged with assaulting his partner and causing property damage during an incident at the General Havelock hotel in Adelaide early on Sunday morning 5 April 2009. He was detained by police and later released to face court at a later date. After the incident, he was suspended indefinitely by the Adelaide Football Club; this suspension was lifted after only one game, and he played a respectable role in the Crows' 48-point loss to Geelong. A hamstring injury saw him miss several more weeks, but he return midway through the season and won the Showdown Medal in Round 17."}, {"context": " Nathan Bock was represented Australian in the 2008 International Rules Series against Ireland. In the first test in Perth, he was selected as the goalkeeper \u2013 a position that does not exist in Australian rules football. He conceded three goals in Australia's 1-point loss. In the second test, he was switched to a more usual role of centre half back and played well. Bock was one of two Adelaide Crows players selected for the Australian squad, along with Scott Thompson. On 17 August 2010, Bock announced that he will leave Adelaide and join the new Gold Coast Suns team that joined the competition in 2011. He was the first current AFL player to announce that he was joining the new team."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bodington", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Sir Nathan Bodington (29 May 1848 \u2013 12 May 1911) was the first Vice Chancellor of the University of Leeds having been Principal and Professor of Greek at the Yorkshire College since 1883. From 1897 to 1901 he was also Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University. Bodington was born in Aston, Birmingham, and educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied classics. He was a teacher at Manchester Grammar School and Westminster School, Professor of classics at Mason College, (which later became Birmingham University), and Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford."}, {"context": " Bodington was responsible for consolidating the Yorkshire College's position within the Victoria University and later, when the fragmentation of members occurred, for obtaining the charter for the separate university in Leeds. He was knighted in 1908. He married Eliza, the daughter of Sir John Barran, on 8 August 1907, but they had no children. He died in Headingley, Leeds, on 12 May 1911. In 1961, the university opened Bodington Hall its largest hall of residence, named after him. A housing estate on this site is now called Bodington Manor."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bombrys", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bombrys is the Managing Director of the Glasgow Warriors, a professional Scottish rugby union club playing in the Pro14. Bombrys is from the state of Michigan in the United States and grew up in Mendon. He began playing rugby at Syracuse University, where he captained the team. Bombrys played rugby for 17 years, and also qualified as a referee. Bombrys worked with the London Towers basketball program. After that, he spent seven years overseeing commercial operations at Sale Sharks in the English Premiership, and then worked as the head of the commercial department at the Scottish Rugby Union's headquarters.  Bombrys began working with the Glasgow Warriors in 2011. One of his first projects was to oversee Glasgow's move from Firhill Stadium to Scotstoun Stadium in Glasgow's west end. Since making the move, the Warriors have gone from 700 season tickets to over 3,500 season tickets. The Warriors have also seen on-field success during Bombrys' tenure, finishing in the Pro 12 top four in 2012 and 2013, and reaching the final in 2014 and becoming Pro12 champions in 2015."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bondswell", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bondswell (born 10 February 1997) is an English footballer. Bondswell began his career at Derby County's youth academy before he moved to North Lancashire, and enrolled at the Lancaster & Morecambe College in 2013. He began playing reserve team football with Morecambe and signed a professional contract with the club in November 2014. He made his professional debut on 1 September 2015 in a 2\u20130 victory over Walsall in the Football League Trophy."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bonner-Evans", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bonner-Evans is a Wales A international rugby union player. A number 8 forward, he has played for Ospreys and for Sale Sharks. In December 2008 he signed for London Welsh RFC. In the 2005\u20132006 season, Bonner-Evans made 11 appearances as Sale Sharks won their first ever Premiership title."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Boone", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Boone (1780\u20131857) was a veteran of the War of 1812, a delegate to the Missouri constitutional convention in 1820, and a captain in the 1st United States Regiment of Dragoons at the time of its founding, eventually rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Nathan was the youngest son of Daniel Boone. Nathan Boone was born at Boone Station, near Athens, Fayette County, Kentucky in 1780 and moved to Spanish Missouri with the family in 1799. In 1807, he and his brother Daniel first worked the Salt licks in what became known as the Booneslick Country. The brothers built the Boone's Lick Road, which became a major overland route in early Missouri."}, {"context": " Boone took part in the War of 1812 as captain of a company of United States Rangers which scouted in the country between the Mississippi and Illinois. He also took part in an expedition led by Henry Dodge to relieve settlers who had been raided by Miami Indians. He and Dodge saved 150 Miamis from massacre by members of their own militia. The Miamis had agreed to surrender as prisoners of war, and certain members of the militia became angered when they found contraband belonging to a settler who had been killed in the original raid, but Dodge and Boone literally stood in the line of fire and forced the nearly mutinous troops to back down. He attained the rank of major in the militia in this war."}, {"context": " After he was mustered out Boone retired to his farm in St. Charles County, Missouri. He built the first stone house north of the Missouri and his father died there. In 1820 he was a delegate to the Missouri constitutional convention He participated in the Black Hawk War in 1832. After the conclusion of those hostilities, he entered the regular army as captain in the United States Regiment of Dragoons, direct predecessor of the 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States Army), the regiment's first commander being Colonel Dodge. He participated in the First Dragoon Expedition, notable for making the first contact between the United States federal government and the southern plains Indians. His army service further included participation in the Second Dragoon Expedition, surveying the boundaries between the Creek and Cherokee Indian nations, and leading his own expedition into the southwestern plains in 1843. In 1847, he was made major in the army, and lieutenant-colonel in 1853. In 1853, Nathan Boone resigned and retired to his home in Missouri, Greene County, Missouri, where he died in 1857.  In the fall of 1851, Nathan Boone and his wife Olive were interviewed by Wisconsin Historical Society archivist Lyman C. Draper concerning his famous father. Along with the interviews, Boone presented Draper with a collection of family papers. Draper wrote a manuscript about Daniel Boone which was finally published as an edited and annotated version in 1998."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Boone Homestead State Historic Site", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Boone Homestead State Historic Site, located two miles north of Ash Grove, Missouri, is a state-owned property that preserves the home built in 1837 by Nathan Boone, the youngest child of Daniel Boone. The Nathan Boone House, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969, is a -story \"classic\" saddle-bag pioneer log house, constructed of hand-hewn oak log walls that rest on a stone foundation. Established in 1991, the historic site offers an interpretive trail plus tours of the home and cemetery."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bor", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan \"Nat\" Bor (March 1, 1913 \u2013 June 13, 1972) was an American boxer who won a bronze medal at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Bor was Jewish, and of Russian heritage. He was born in Fall River, Massachusetts on March 1, 1913. Bor was the 1932 United States Amateur Lightweight Champion and won the bronze medal in the lightweight class after winning the third place fight against Mario Bianchini. Bor won his first professional bout with a second round knockout of Al Hope on October 5, 1932 at the Casino in his home of Fall River, Massachusetts."}, {"context": " Bobby Allen fell to Bor on April 12, 1937 in a ten round points decision in Holyoke, Massachusetts. Winning in an upset, Bor floored his rival with a lethal uppercut to the chin in the tenth. On June 24, 1937, he lost a ninth round technical knockout to Andy Callahan at Brave's Field in Boston. Early in the bout, Bor suffered a bad cut over his left eye, which grew worse until the referee stopped the fighting 1:05 into the ninth round. Though there were no knockdowns in the bout, Callahan managed to earn a large lead on points from the opening rounds.  He defeated K.O. Castillo on October 28, 1938, in a ten round newspaper decision in Portland, Oregon. The \"Boston Globe\" gave Bor nine of the ten rounds. His last bout on May 24, 1940, was an eighth round technical knockout loss to Joe Boscarino in Boston Garden. Bor served in WWII. He died on June 13, 1972 in New Bedford, Massachusetts, after a sudden illness, leaving a wife and two children."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bostock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Mark Bostock (born October 1960) is a British banker, and the CEO of Santander UK. Nathan Mark Bostock was born in October 1960. He has a bachelor's degree in mathematics. Bostock started his career training as an accountant with Coopers & Lybrand before working for Chase Manhattan Bank in risk analysis and interest rate derivatives from 1988 to 1992, rising to head of risk analysis and finance, treasury and interest derivatives (Europe). Bostock worked for RBS for nine years from 1993 to 2001, rising to head of risk."}, {"context": " From 2001 to 2009, Bostock worked for Abbey National (now Santander UK), and was a main board director from 2005. In June 2009, Bostock returned to RBS as the \"new right-hand man\" to CEO Stephen Hester, tasked with trying to sell off non-core assets. He joined RBS as head of restructuring and risk, later becoming group chief risk officer and then finance director. In 2011 he turned down a move to head up the wholesale division of Lloyds Banking Group, reportedly due to the ill-health absence of their chief executive, Ant\u00f3nio Horta Os\u00f3rio. He resigned after only ten weeks as finance director.  Bostock joined Santander UK as deputy CEO in August 2014, and became CEO in September 2014, succeeding Ana Patricia Bot\u00edn. In January 2018, the Liberal Democrat leader Sir Vince Cable stated in Parliament that Bostock had been responsible for RBS's Global Restructuring Group (GRG), when it had \"engaged in an intentional strategy that resulted in mistreatment of business customers\". Bostock is married, with two sons, and has a farm near Maidstone, Kent."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bourdeau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bourdeau (born August 10, 1990 in Baldwinsville, NY) is a professional American soccer player who currently plays for Utica City FC in the Major Arena Soccer League and formerly the Rochester Rhinos in the United Soccer League. Nathan attended Baldwinsville High School where he is the schools all-time leader in goals and assists. Bourdeau was a 6-year member of Region 1 ODP team and a U-18 US National team member. He played college soccer at Boston College in 2008, where he was part of a top 15 recruiting class, according to ESPN.com before transferring to Rutgers University in his sophomore year. While at Rutgers University, Bourdeau was named team MVP, All-Big East team and captain while leading them to a sweet 16.  Nathan is entering his seventh season as a professional having played both outdoor and indoor soccer. In 2015, he was part of a Rochester Rhinos team that went on to win the USL championship vs. LA Galaxy II."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bowen House", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Nathan Bowen House is a historic house at 26 Kelton Street in Rehoboth, Massachusetts. The 2-1/2 story, wood-framed house was built in about 1785, and is one of the town's finest Federal style houses. It is relatively unaltered, with no later partitioning of its interior, which was originally designed for two households. The households are arranged one per floor, with full kitchen fireplaces with bake ovens. The house was owned by members of the Bowen family until the late 19th century. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 6, 1983."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bower", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Bower (born 8 June 1972) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with Richmond in the Australian Football League (AFL) during the 1990s. Bower was one of three brothers from Mildura to play for Richmond, with Brendan and Darren Bower the others. He was picked up early in the 1989 VFL Draft, for the 15th selection and was used at Richmond as a wingman, half back and tagger. In 1993 he averaged 14.82 disposals but played just half the season. Only once, in 1995, did Bower play a full year in the seniors and his 20 games included three finals where he put in some decent performances.  Bower joined the Bendigo Diggers in 1999 as captain-coach, after being delisted by Richmond."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Boya", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Boya (real name William Fitzgerald) was the first African American to go over Niagara Falls. Very little is known about Fitzgerald. He claimed to be self-employed, but others have claimed he worked for IBM. On July 15, 1961, Fitzgerald went over the Horseshoe Falls in a metal ball he helped design called the \"Plunge-O-Sphere\". Performing stunts on the Falls could only be performed with permission, following the death of William Hill, Jr in 1951. Fitzgerald did not obtain a permit to do his stunt and was arrested and fined after completing it. After the flurry of appearances after his plunge, Fitzgerald did not make public appearances until 1985, when he attended Karel Soucek's funeral and in 1988 protesting discriminatory actions against a scientist he called \"Dr. X\"."}, {"context": " Nathan Boya appeared as a contestant on \"I've Got A Secret\" on August 30, 1961. His secret was \"I went over Niagara Falls in a 6-foot ball.\" Bill Cullen and Betsy Palmer questioned him. The other panelists, Henry Morgan and Bess Meyerson, recognized him. He was later a contestant on \"To Tell The Truth\" on an episode that aired January 15, 1962. Three of the four members of the celebrity panel (Tom Poston, Dina Merrill and Johnny Carson) guessed him correctly; Betty White did not. Interviewed in 2012 for a \"National Geographic\" television special about Niagara daredevils, Fitzgerald revealed his reason for his stunt, after decades of silence: He had broken off his engagement, to a woman that he felt he had wronged, and he performed the dangerous stunt as a form of penance. Niagara had been their planned honeymoon destination."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Boyle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Boyle (born 14 April 1994) is a football striker who currently plays for Finn Harps in the League of Ireland. Boyle broke into the Derry side during the 2014 season and went on to make 10 appearances that season. Derry City loaned Boyle to Finn Harps in early 2015, where he made his debut as a substitute late in the second half in a 1-0 win over Cabinteely. The next fixture saw him make his first start for Harps, scoring twice in an away win over Waterford United. When with Harps he helped the club gain promotion to the premier league. Despite suffering hamstring issues in the later half of the season, he had scored a total of 5 goals for Harps during his loan period.  Derry then recalled him back into their first team at the end of 2015, in time for the 2016 season. After his return, Boyle scored his first goals for Derry, coming on as a substitute, scoring the matchwinner with his second goal, in a victory over Galway in March 2016. The following month in a victory over Sligo Rovers, Boyle scored both Derry's goals, to put Derry through to the EA Sports Cup quarter-finals."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Boynton", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Smith Boynton (June 23, 1837 \u2013 May 27, 1911) was a Michigan politician, inventor, investor, hotel owner, and a Civil War Major. He was born in Port Huron, Michigan, the son of Granville Boynton and Frances Rendt Boynton. Frances Rendt was the daughter of Captain Ludwig Rendt, a Hessian soldier who fought for the British in the War of 1812; his wife was from Spain. Boynton was educated in Waukegan, Illinois and briefly attended medical school in Cincinnati, Ohio where he married Anna Fidelei. Together they had five children."}, {"context": " After his service in the Civil War, Boynton returned to Port Huron where he served in many capacities, including postmaster, newspaper publisher and mayor. He held patents related to fire fighting equipment and commemorative badges. He also founded the Order of the Maccabees, a national social fraternity that served as a form of life insurance. His failing health caused him to seek a warmer climate; Boynton visited South Florida in 1895 with Congressman William S. Linton. Boynton purchased land along the beachfront from Linton and built a wooden two-story hotel, The Boynton, later called the Boynton Beach Hotel. The associated town west of the hotel was named for Major Boynton on the plat filed by Byrd S. Dewey and her husband Fred S. Dewey on September 26, 1898. The town incorporated in 1920. Major Boynton died on May 27, 1911 at his home in Port Huron."}]}, {"title": "Nathan Bracken", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Nathan Wade Bracken (born 12 September 1977) is a former Australian cricketer, who played all formats of the game. A tall left-arm fast-medium bowler, Bracken is capable of swinging the ball both ways. Bracken represented New South Wales in Australian domestic cricket, Eastern Suburbs in Sydney Grade Cricket and also appeared for English County team Gloucestershire in 2004. On 28 January 2011 he announced his retirement from the game due to a chronic knee injury. On 9 February 2012 it was reported that he sued Cricket Australia over the latter's alleged incompetency in managing his knee injury."}, {"context": " Nathan Bracken was born in Penrith, New South Wales to parents Gordon and Robin. He spent his childhood living in the Blue Mountains region of New South Wales, attending Faulconbridge Primary and Springwood High School. He currently resides on the Central Coast of New South Wales and is married to Haley Bracken with whom he has 2 children named Chase and Tag. He is also studying for an undergraduate degree in communications. Bracken contested the Australian House of Representatives seat of Dobell as an independent against sitting member Craig Thomson at the 2013 federal election and received an 8.2 percent primary vote. He ran again in 2017 as an independent for a seat on the Central Coast Council, finishing with 3.6% of the vote."}, {"context": " After a stint at the Australian Cricket Academy in 1997, Bracken made his first-class debut for New South Wales against Queensland on 27 October 1998 at Manuka Oval, Canberra. New South Wales were beaten by an innings and Bracken finished with figures of 0/86 off 41 overs. He played 5 more first-class matches in the 1998\u201399 season and finished with 11 wickets at a respectable average of 30.36. The 1999\u201300 season saw Bracken only play one match, however the 2000\u201301 season was one of great success for Bracken. He finished the season as New South Wales second leading wicket-taker behind Stuart MacGill with 29 wickets at 23.72. As a result of his outstanding season he was rewarded with a place in the Australian squad for the 2001 Ashes tour, a Cricket Australia contract and won the 2001 Bradman Young Cricketer of the Year award."}, {"context": " After recovering from a shoulder injury he sustained on the 2001 Ashes tour, Bracken played 8 matches for New South Wales in the 2001\u201302 season. He had a successful season once again, claiming 24 wickets at 31.79 and finishing behind Stuart Clark as the second leading wicket taker for New South Wales. 2002\u201303 was a season that saw Bracken struggle as he only took 16 wickets in 6 matches at a rather expensive 36.62. 2003\u201304 saw Bracken make his Test debut and as a result, he appeared less frequently for New South Wales. Despite this, he still performed well in the 4 matches he participated in, taking 16 wickets at 24.75. Following this season, Bracken was signed by Gloucestershire to play in the English first-class competition as a replacement for Mike Smith. Bracken only played 2 matches for the club, however he was quite successful and took 5 wickets at 21.20 with best figures of 2/12 coming against Lancashire."}, {"context": " 2004\u201305 was Bracken's best season for New South Wales to date. He played in all 11 matches and took 43 wickets at an average of 18.79. The season contained a number of memorable performances by Bracken including a phenomenal spell of 7/4 off 7 overs to help dismiss South Australia for a mere 29 runs at the Sydney Cricket Ground on 2 December 2004. The figures were Bracken's best ever at the time, and are amongst the most impressive figures seen in Australian domestic cricket history. He also played an enormous part in New South Wales' thrilling 1 wicket win in the final against Queensland, winning Man of the Match. Bracken claimed 6/27 in 13.2 overs to help bowl out Queensland for 102 in their first innings and took an important 2/54 in their second innings. To add to this, Bracken scored an invaluable 11* to guide his team home to their target of 183 after New South Wales were 9/161, still needing 22 for victory. 2005\u201306 saw a return to the Test team for Bracken and as a result, fewer matches for New South Wales. Bracken still performed strongly in his few games, taking 13 wickets at 17.53. After only playing 2 matches in the 2006\u201307 season, the Blues enjoyed Bracken's services in their Pura Cup winning 2007\u201308 season as he appeared in the final and took 22 wickets at 21.22 during the season."}, {"context": " Bracken made his List A debut for New South Wales against the now defunct Canberra Comets on 31 October 1998 at Manuka Oval, Canberra. New South Wales won the match and Bracken was rather economical taking 0/19 off his 5 overs. After a Man of the Match performance against Queensland in the semi-final of the Mercantile Mutual Cup, Bracken was selected in the New South Wales team to meet Victoria in the final in only his 5th List A game. Bracken was economical, taking 0/28 off his 10 overs however New South Wales still lost the final by 39 runs."}, {"context": " After only playing one match in the 1999\u201300 season, the 2000\u201301 season proved to be a successful one for Bracken as he made his One Day International debut and helped New South Wales to win the Mercantile Mutual Cup. Bracken took 11 wickets at an average of 25.00, including figures of 2/43 in the final against Western Australia. He continued his good form into the 2001\u201302 season, helping New South Wales claim their second consecutive One Day title, this time over Queensland. Bracken took 18 wickets at 21.88 during the season, which included his best List A performance to date, as he took 5/38 against Victoria at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. 2002\u201303 was another successful season for both Bracken and New South Wales, as the Blues recorded their third consecutive domestic One Day title and Bracken claimed 15 scalps at 23.66. Bracken was once again a leading performer in the final, taking 2/35 off his 10 overs as New South Wales cruised to a 7 wicket win."}, {"context": " After three seasons of success, Bracken struggled for New South Wales in both the 2003\u201304 and 2004\u201305 seasons taking 3 wickets at 76.33 and 7 wickets at 44.71 respectively. International commitments left Bracken out of the side for a large majority of the 2005\u201306 One Day season, however he performed well in his limited appearances, claiming 5 wickets at 21.60. Once again, Bracken's international duties kept him out of a large majority of the 2006\u201307 and 2007\u201308 seasons and he took 3 wickets at 54.33 and 5 wickets at 37.80 respectively."}, {"context": " Bracken made his Test debut for Australia on 4 December 2003 against India in the Border-Gavaskar Trophy as a replacement for the injured Glenn McGrath. In a drawn Test, Bracken had a respectable debut Test claiming 1/90 off 26 overs in the first innings and 2/12 off 4 overs in the second. Despite this, Bracken was dropped for Western Australian paceman Brad Williams for the Second Test at Adelaide. The selectors chose Bracken ahead of Andrew Bichel for the final two Tests and in a drawn series that saw most bowlers struggle, he finished with 6 wickets at 58.50."}, {"context": " Due to the strength of fast bowling in Australia, Bracken was kept out of the Test team for nearly 2 years until he was selected in the Australian side for the 1st Test of the 2005\u201306 Frank Worrell Trophy against the West Indies in Brisbane. It was in this match that Bracken recorded both his best Test batting and bowling performances to date. In Australia's first innings he struck 37 off 51 balls and in the West Indians' second innings, Bracken claimed figures of 4/48 off 16 overs including the wickets of Brian Lara and Shivnarine Chanderpaul. Despite this good all-round performance, leg spinner Stuart MacGill was favoured by the selectors for the remaining Tests in the series. In December 2005, Bracken played the 1st Test against South Africa at the WACA Ground before once again being dropped in favour of Stuart MacGill."}, {"context": " Bracken has not played another Test since then due to the rise of Stuart Clark and Mitchell Johnson however in February 2008 he claimed that he was still eager to claim a spot in the Test team. Bracken is considered unlucky by many for his lack of Test starts given his one-day form \u2013 leading to comparisons with Michael Bevan. Bracken made his debut for Australia on 11 January 2001 against the West Indies. Although putting in respectable performances with the ball, he could not manage an assured place in the side due to both injuries and the strength of the Australian team. However, after Jason Gillespie was dropped from the national side, Bracken returned for the 2005 ICC Super Series against the World XI. This began the start of a sustained run in the national team and rise of Bracken as an international cricketer."}, {"context": " In the record-breaking fifth ODI during Australia's Tour of South Africa in 2006, Bracken achieved his maiden 5 wicket haul, taking 5-67 off 10 overs. He was the only bowler in the match to concede less than 7 runs an over. From the third ODI of that tour until the 5th match of the Commonwealth Bank series in 2007, Bracken went on a 17 match streak of taking at least a wicket a game. His consistency was rewarded with a place in the 2007 World Cup winning team and took 16 wickets during the campaign."}, {"context": " On February 8 2008, Bracken achieved his best ever international figures taking 5-47 against Sri Lanka in Sydney. On July 8 Bracken displaced Daniel Vettori as the no. 1 ranked ODI bowler in the world following the series against the West Indies. He was also named in the ICC World ODI team of the year in 2008 and awarded Australia's ODI player of the year at the 2009 Allan Border Medal ceremony. Bracken played his last ODI on September 17 2009 after succumbing to a knee injury and being ruled out of the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy. This would be his last appearance in Australian colours as the selectors moved on towards younger players. Bracken later announced he would quit from all forms of international cricket on 29 January 2011."}, {"context": " He finished with 174 ODI wickets at an average of 24.36 and proved to be a vital member of the Australian One Day International side during his career. With a combination of accuracy, swing and cutters, Bracken established himself as one of the most effective limited overs bowlers in the world. Test Debut: vs India at the Brisbane Cricket Ground, 4 December 2003 (cap 387). One Day International Debut: vs West Indies at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, 11 January 2001 (cap 142). Twenty20 International Debut: vs South Africa at the Brisbane Cricket Ground, 9 January 2006 (cap 14)."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Short Story Prize", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Short Story Prize is awarded annually for the best piece of unpublished short fiction (2,000 to 5,000 words). The prize is open to Commonwealth citizens aged 18 and over. The Commonwealth Short Story Prize is managed by Commonwealth Writers, the cultural initiative of the Commonwealth Foundation, which was set up in 2012 to inspire, develop and connect writers and storytellers across the Commonwealth. The Prize replaced the Commonwealth Short Story Competition, a roughly similar competition that existed from 1996 to 2011 and was discontinued by the Commonwealth Foundation, along with the Commonwealth Writers' Prize."}, {"context": " The Prize is open to writers who have had little or no work published and particularly aimed at those places with little or no publishing industry. The prize aims to bring writing from these countries to the attention of an international audience. The stories need to be in English, but can be translated from other languages. The overall winner receives \u00a35,000 and the regional winner \u00a32,500. During 2012\u201313, the regional received \u00a31,000. Starting in 2014, the award for regional winners of the Short Story Prize was increased to \u00a32,500. At the same time, Commonwealth Writers discontinued the Commonwealth Book Prize and focused solely on the Short Story Prize.  Commonwealth Writers is the cultural programme of the Commonwealth Foundation. The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation established in 1965, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Regional winners and overall winners."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Skyranger", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Skyranger, earlier produced as the Rearwin Skyranger, was the last design of Rearwin Aircraft. It was a low-powered two-seat, high-wing taildragger. The Skyranger was developed by Rearwin Aircraft & Engines Co., Inc., and certificated in 1940 (U.S. Approved Type Certificate 729) The Skyranger was originally produced in 1940, as a high-wing light plane seating two people side-by-side. It had a conventional landing gear with a tailwheel. It was constructed with a fabric-covered steel tube fuselage and wooden wing (with a semi-symmetical airfoil cross-section. The Skyranger was powered by a variety of opposed engines made by Continental Motors and the Franklin Engine Company, ranging from 65 to 90 horsepower. It sold for about $2,400."}, {"context": " Comparably configured aircraft, of the era, included the Aeronca Chief (pre-war models), Taylorcraft and Piper J-4 Cub Coupe, and other competitors included the tandem-seating Piper Cub, Interstate Cadet, and Porterfield Collegiate. However, the Skyranger handled very differently from the other planes in its class -- with a \"heavy-airplane feel\" (heavy controls, exceptional stability), and, with an unusually large vertical stabilizer for its size, was exceptionally susceptible to crosswinds during landing and taxiing."}, {"context": " Rearwin (at that time Rearwin Aircraft and Engines Co., Inc.) developed the Skyranger at Fairfax Airport in Kansas City, Kansas, Its development in 1940 came shortly before the U.S. entered World War II. At that time, the U.S. government was purchasing almost any airplane in the two-seat, 50-90 horsepower class as training aircraft for the Civilian Pilot Training Program (\"CPT Program\" or \"CPTP\"), intended to develop tens of thousands of pilots for the possibliity of U.S. involvement in the war. However, unlike its contemporaries heavily used in the CPTP such as the Piper Cub, Taylorcraft, Interstate Cadet, and Porterfield Collegiate, the Skyranger was more challenging to fly and was rejected by the government for CPTP use."}, {"context": " By the start of U.S. involvement in the war, in 1941, Rearwin had produced only 50 Skyrangers, and by the end of Rearwin production, it had built just 82 Skyrangers (compared to hundreds or thousands of its competitors' planes) -- 25 of them going to Iran. In 1942 the Rearwin Airplane Company was purchased by Commonwealth Aircraft of Kansas City, Missouri. In 1946 Commonwealth re-established the construction of the Skyranger at their Valley Stream plant for just one year. It had many minor modifications but was essentially the same aircraft. As the anticipated post-war boom in civil aviation had not then started, Commonwealth went bankrupt in 1947. 275 Skyrangers were built by Commonwealth (Note that Aerofiles.com reports that number as the production quantity -- \"POP\" -- built by Rearwin).  Serial numbers in the 1500s were built by Rearwin. Serial numbers in the 1600s are Commonwealth 185 Skyrangers."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Stadium (Edmonton)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Stadium, also known as The Brick Field at Commonwealth Stadium during Eskimos events, is an open-air, all-seater multipurpose stadium located in the McCauley neighbourhood of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It has a seating capacity of 55,819, making it the largest open-air stadium in Canada. It has been used for Canadian football, athletics, soccer, and rugby union, as well as concerts. Construction commenced in 1975 and the venue opened ahead of the 1978 Commonwealth Games (hence its name), replacing the adjacent Clarke Stadium as the Eskimos home. It received a major expansion ahead of the 1983 Summer Universiade, when it reached a capacity of 60,081. Its main tenant is the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL), and has hosted four Grey Cups, the CFL's championship game. The stadium had remained the only CFL venue with natural grass for a long time, until FieldTurf Duraspine Pro was installed in 2010."}, {"context": " Soccer tournaments include nine FIFA World Cup qualification matches with Canada Men's National Soccer Team, two versions of the invitational Canada Cup, the 1996 CONCACAF Men's Pre-Olympic Tournament, the 2002 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup, the 2014 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. FC Edmonton played its Canadian Championship matches at Commonwealth Stadium from 2011-2013. The stadium is also listed as a potential site for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, which Canada will co-host with Mexico and the United States."}, {"context": " Other events at the stadium include the 2001 World Championships in Athletics, the 2006 Women's Rugby World Cup and three editions of the Churchill Cup. Prior to Commonwealth Stadium, the main stadium in Edmonton was Clarke Stadium, which opened in 1939 and was built on a plot of land. Work on applying to host the 1978 Commonwealth Games started in the early 1970s. With both federal, provincial and city funding backing the bid, it called for a massive renovation of the city's various sporting venues. The original plans called for Clarke Stadium to be rebuilt and expanded to host the athletics events. By 1974 there was consensus that Clarke Stadium would not be sufficient and that an all-new stadium should be built. Several locations and sizes were discussed, with Edmonton City Council in January 1975 landing on building a 40,000 seat venue next to Clarke Stadium. The venue was designed by Ragan, Bell, McManus Consultants. The city also decided to build to additional new venues: Kinsmen Aquatic Centre and Argyll Velodrome. They based their design on Jack Trice Stadium in the US city of Ames, Iowa."}, {"context": " Part of the public support for the stadium came from it being built to also support being used by the Eskimos. The plans were met with opposition from local residents. There were also discussions regarding the necessity of a $50,000 royal retirement room and the allocation of training and office space to the Eskimos. The largest discussion was related to whether the stadium needed a roof or dome. As the roof would cost $18.2 million, there was limited public support and the stadium was built without one. In an attempt to further the roof process, the Eskimos offered to pay $1.6 million towards the roof. An enclosement would not be permitted used during the Commonwealth Games, so the design would have to call for the roof to be added afterwards. Among the opponents of the roof was Commonwealth Games Foundation President Maury Van Vilet, that experience from construction of the Olympic Stadium in Montreal showed the necessity of building a simple structure. An alternative design, which would have cost an additional $7.3 million, was launched by the Eskimos in August 1975, but rejected by the city council. A major concern for the city council were the large cost overruns which were being experienced in Montreal at the time."}, {"context": " Excavation started in December 1974 and saw the removal of 400,000 cubic meters (500,000\u00a0cu.\u00a0yd.) of earthwork. A local action committee, Action Edmonton, demanded in early 1975 that construction be halted and the venue relocated. The city estimated that this would cost an additional $2.5 million and delay the process with eight months. The decision to not enclose the stadium was taken on December 10, 1975. The venue was thus not designed to allow a roof, air-filled or stiff, to be retrofitted. The venue was built on the former site of the Rat Creek Dump and the Williamson Slaughter House. During excavation, remains from the dump were struck, resulting in archaeological surveys being carried out. Construction of the Edmonton Light Rail Transit's inaugural Capital Line commenced in 1974 and was opened in time for the Commonwealth Games, which allowed spectators to take the LRT from Stadium station to downtown Edmonton."}, {"context": " Construction of the stadium was completed within budget and time. When the venue opened it had a capacity for 42,500 and a natural grass turf. Unlike most other major stadiums in Canada, Commonwealth Stadium elected for a natural grass turf. The original configuration included 39,384 bucket seats and 3,200 bench seating on the north end. The venue was officially opened on July 15, 1978 in an event which attracted 15,000 spectators. The venue went through a slight expansion in 1980, when the seating capacity was increased to 43,346. Additional proposals for a roof, ranging from $10 to $32 million in cost, were presented in 1979, but since then the discussion of covering the stadium died out."}, {"context": " Edmonton was selected to host the 1983 Summer Universiade, and in 1981 the city council approved an $11 million upgrade to the venue, which added a further 18,000 seats to the upper tiers and the north end zone; this gave a capacity of 59,912 in 1982 and 60,081 from 1983. For special events, such as the Grey Cup, additional seating could be added. This made it the second-largest stadium in Canada, after Montreal's Olympic Stadium, and the largest without a dome. After Winnipeg Stadium, home of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, installed AstroTurf on their field for the 1988 CFL season, the stadium was the last in the CFL to have a natural grass surface (a few teams from the CFL's American expansion notwithstanding); it would have this distinction for the next 21 years."}, {"context": " Ahead of the 2001 World Championships in Athletics, the stadium received a $24-million facelift. Major investments included a new facade, an enlargement of the concourse, improved lighting, a new scoreboard and an all-new all-weather running track. Ahead of the 2008 season the stadium underwent a reconfiguration, reducing its capacity to 59,537. For the nine seasons prior to 2010, the natural turf was replaced eight times, costing $50,000 each time. The natural grass turf was replaced with FieldTurf Duraspine Pro in May 2010, making the Eskimos the last CFL team to switch to artificial turf (and made all fields in the CFL having artificial turf; this would last for six seasons), and the last team to play on grass until the Toronto Argonauts began playing at BMO Field for the 2016 season. The investment cost $2.6 million and was split evenly between the city and the Eskimos. The work included the removal of of soil, and the turf has a life expectancy of 8 to 10 years. It will cost $500,000 to replace. The reason for the replacement was to reduce injuries, reduce the need for watering and fertilizer, will allow a green turf for the entire season, including at Grey Cups (when the weather is especially cold in Edmonton during that time of year), will allow the venue to host more events, as concerts and the like will not damage the field, and that turf is recycled and recyclable."}, {"context": " Commonwealth Stadium underwent a $112-million facelift starting in 2009. The main investment was a field house, new locker rooms, a hosting area and two floors of office space. The complex, named the Commonwealth Community Recreation Center and designed by MacLennan Jaunkalns Miller Architects and HIP Architects, also consists of an aquatic center, a fitness center. The complex was completed in February 2012. Following the 2010 Grey Cup, the program to replace the seating at the stadium commenced. All seating (which had been in place since the stadium's opening) was replaced with new and wider seats, and the color changed from red and orange to green and yellow\u2014the Eskimos' colors. Approval of the $12 million upgrade was made by the city council on May 18, 2011, and it took 11 months to select a supplier, with installation starting in June 2012. The upgrade removed all bench seating, which had been in place in the corners and end zones, resulting in an all-seater stadium. Because of wider seats, being replaced with , capacity for the venue as reduced to 56,302. The process reduced the number of seats on rows by one. With the seating installed, the total investment in the venue exceeded $200 million. Before the start of the 2014 CFL season, the track surface was stripped off, thus giving the football endzones a squared-off look; they were rounded off prior to this."}, {"context": " On June 15, 2016, the Edmonton Eskimos announced a five-year field naming rights partnership with The Brick to name the field \"The Brick Field at Commonwealth Stadium\" during CFL events. Commonwealth Stadium has a seating capacity of 56,302, in an all-seater configuration. The stadium has two twin-tier grandstands along each side, and single-tier stands on the corners and end zones. The sides feature 44,032 seats, with the remaining 12,386 in the corners and end zones. The side seats are wide and have a cup holder, a feature lacking on the narrower end zone seats. The seating is laid out in a colorized mosaic pattern, with dark \"Eskimo\" green at the bottom, yellow in the middle and lighter green at the top. In the sides there are 14,203 dark green seats, 19,019 yellow seats and 10,810 light green seats. In the corner and end zones there are 8,672 dark green and 3,713 yellow seats. There are 15 executive suites on the east stand, 7 on the west stand and 8 on the south end zone. There is a limited amount of covered seating on the upper sections of the lower tier on the sides; half of this section on the east stand is a media center."}, {"context": " The stadium has a Shaw Sports Turf Powerblade Elite 2.5S artificial turf system, installed in 2016 by GTR turf, which covers an area of . It contains additional cushioning through the installation of an extra shock pad. The turf lacks permanent line markings; this allows the markings to alternate between football and soccer. Because of the running track, the corners of the end zones were partially cut. In 2014, the end zones were squared off. The track and field segment consists of a Sportflex Super X all-weather running track manufactured by Mondo of Italy. The International Association of Athletics Federations has certified the stadium as a Class 1 venue, a certification only two other stadiums have in Canada: Moncton Stadium and Universit\u00e9 de Sherbrooke Stadium."}, {"context": " At the Commonwealth Stadium complex is the Field House, an 8,400\u00a0square meter (90,000\u00a0sq\u00a0ft) three-story training facility which includes a running track, a artificial turf training field, a fitness and weight room, locker rooms and a running track. It is part of the Commonwealth Community Recreation Center, which also includes a 5,600\u00a0square meter (60,000\u00a0sq\u00a0ft) aquatics center with a four-lane lap pool, water slides and a recreational pool; 2,800\u00a0square meters (30,000\u00a0sq\u00a0ft) of administrative offices; and a 2,800\u00a0square meter (30,000\u00a0sq\u00a0ft) fitness center. The building features a central lobby with each of the facilities in an annex. The center has Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Silver certification. Adjacent to Commonwealth Stadium lays Clarke Stadium; it sits 5,000 and is both used as a training field and as the home ground of the North American Soccer League side FC Edmonton."}, {"context": " The stadium is served by Stadium station of the Edmonton Light Rail Transit's (LRT) Capital Line. During Eskimos games, the service frequency is increased. The City of Edmonton and the Eskimos cooperate on the Green & Go program, which provides free transit rides to the venue from six park and ride lots throughout Edmonton. Any holder of a pre-purchased ticket or an Edmonton Transit System ticket can travel for free on the services from these lots to Commonwealth Stadium. The program is initiated by the city to minimize parking and congestion in the stadium's neighborhood. Game day tickets are also valid fare on the LRT service from two hours prior to games to two hours after games. The city declares a neighbourhood parking ban in the vicinity of the stadium during games, with only cars with residential permits being allowed to be parked on streets."}, {"context": " Commonwealth Stadium was the centrepiece of the 1978 Commonwealth Games, which were hosted from August 3 to 12.The games saw 1,474 athletes from 46 nations competed in 128 events. Canada conducted its all-time best performance, capturing 45 gold medals and 109 medals in total. Commonwealth Stadium hosted the athletics events, which consisted of 38 events: 23 for male and 15 for female competitors, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The success and popularity of the Commonwealth Games resulted in Edmonton bidding for and being selected to host the 1983 Summer Universiade. The Commonwealth Stadium was again selected to host the athletics events, in addition to the opening and closing ceremonies. 24 male and 17 female athletics events were hosted. The games saw 2,400 participants from 73 countries, but did not attract the same public attention as the Commonwealth Games had."}, {"context": " The 2001 World Championships in Athletics were held at Commonwealth Stadium between August 3 and 12, featuring 1677 participants from 189 nations. Commonwealth Stadium has been the home of the Canadian Football League's Edmonton Eskimos since the 1978 season. In the 1977 season, the last whole season at Clarke, the Eskimos drew an average 25,324 spectators, filling up the venue to its capacity for seven of eight games. For the 1979 season, they drew an average 42,540 spectators, selling out seven of eight games. The all-time regular-season attendance record is 62,517, set against the Saskatchewan Roughriders on September 26, 2009. 28 regular-season Eskimos games at have sold out at Commonwealth. With the laying of artificial turf in 2010, the Eskimos stopped training on Clarke Stadium and have since used Commonwealth Stadium as their training ground."}, {"context": " The stadium has been host to the Grey Cup, the CFL's championship game, five times, in 1984, 1997, 2002, 2010, and 2018. Tickets to the 2010 Grey Cup were sold out prior to the start of the season. The game was spectated by a crowd of 63,317, the largest to ever attend the stadium. The Edmonton Drillers of the North American Soccer League, then the premier soccer league in Canada and the United States, was established in 1979 with the relocation of the Oakland Stompers. Bought by Peter Pocklington, the team chose to play its first three seasons at Commonwealth Stadium. The team played to home play-off matches during the 1980 season. The Drillers averaged between 9,923 and 10,920 in their first three seasons. After having lost $10.5 million in three years, Pocklington chose to relocate to Clarke Stadium for the 1982 season. This caused average attendance to plummet to 4,922 and the team was disbanded at the end of the year."}, {"context": " In the past, because of its natural turf, Commonwealth Stadium has been a favored stadium for the Canadian Soccer Association to host national games. It has hosted 18 games of the Men's National Soccer Team and two of the Men's Under-20 National Team. The most intense period was between 1995 and 2000, when 13 A-team games were played. The A-team has played nine FIFA World Cup qualification and five friendly matches at Commonwealth. The record attendance of 51,936 was set when Canada tied Brazil 1\u20131 on June 5, 1994."}, {"context": " The Canadian Soccer Association twice invited to the Canada Cup, a three- or four-way invitational international friendly tournament, with all matches hosted at Commonwealth Stadium. The 1995 Canada Cup featured Canada, Northern Ireland and Chile, while the 1999 Canada Cup featured Canada U-23, Iran, Ecuador and Guatemala U-23. Edmonton has hosted five international friendly matches and two FIFA Women's World Cup matches featuring the Canada women's national soccer team. Before the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, the record attendance was 29,953 for a game on August 31, 2003, when Canada beat Mexico 8\u20130. The attendance record was broken in 2015, when a record crowd of 53,058 saw Canada beat China 1\u20130 in the first match of the Women's World Cup."}, {"context": " Canada and Commonwealth Stadium were host to the 1996 edition of the CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Tournament, which featured the Men's Under-23 National Team between 10 and 19 May. The tournament drew crowds up to 19,401, and saw Canada finish second to Mexico. Canada played Australia, playing 2\u20132 at Commonwealth Stadium on 26 May. Canada lost 5\u20130 in Australia and fail to qualify. Edmonton co-hosted the inaugural 2002 FIFA U-19 Women's World Championship between August 17 and September 1 along with Vancouver and Victoria. Edmonton was the base of operations and featured 12 of the 26 matches. FIFA was originally skeptical to using such a large venue, especially for those matches which did not involve Canada. The 12 games drew a total 238,090 and an average 19,841 spectators. The final, which saw the United States defeat Canada 1\u20130 in extra time, was spectated by 47,784; this remains a world-record attendance for youth-level women's soccer."}, {"context": " Commonwealth Stadium was one of six Canadian venues selected to host the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup between June 30 and July 22. Nine of 52 matches were played in Edmonton, including a quarterfinal and a semifinal, and two of Canada. The games drew a total attendance of 243,517 and an average attendance of 27,057, second only to the Olympic Stadium in Montreal. The highest attendance was 32,058, which watched Canada play Congo. Two club friendly matches were played at Commonwealth in 2009 and 2010, under the Edmonton Cup umbrella. In the first, 15,800 spectators watched Argentinian side River Plate defeat England's Everton 1\u20130. In the second, 8,792 spectators watched FC Edmonton play English side Portsmouth to a 1\u20131 draw. FC Edmonton started competing in the Canadian Championship in 2011 season and played these games at Commonwealth Stadium until 2014 when they returned to Clarke Stadium which is their regular home ground. Commonwealth Stadium also hosted matches during the 2014 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup between August 5 and 24, and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup between June 5 and July 6."}, {"context": " Concerts held at Commonwealth Stadium include Pink Floyd, Beyonc\u00e9, David Bowie, Tim McGraw, Genesis, The Rolling Stones, The Police, Fiction Plane, AC/DC, Metallica, U2, Kenny Chesney, Bob Dylan, Willie Nelson, Taylor Swift, Bon Jovi, Lilith Fair, Edgefest and One Direction. Edmonton Rock Cirkus I on August 26, 1979 with Peter Frampton, Heart, Trooper, Streetheart, Eddie Money and Dixon House Band. Edmonton Rock Cirkus II on June 29, 1980 with Foreigner, Toronto, Prism, Warren Zevon, Ian Hunter and Chuck Berry (late, didn't play)."}, {"context": " The 2003 Heritage Classic was an outdoor ice hockey game played on November 22 between the National Hockey League (NHL) sides Edmonton Oilers and the Montreal Canadiens. The first regular-season NHL game to be played outdoors, it saw the Canadiens win 4\u20133 in front of a crowd of 57,167, despite temperatures of close to \u221218\u00a0\u00b0C, \u221230\u00a0\u00b0C (\u221222\u00a0\u00b0F) with wind chill. It was held to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the Edmonton Oilers joining the NHL in 1979 and the 20th anniversary of their first Stanley Cup win in 1984. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television broadcast drew 2.747 million viewers in Canada, the second-highest audience for a regular-season NHL game."}, {"context": " Commonwealth Stadium has been used to host Churchill Cup matches. The 2004 edition had the first round played in Calgary and the second round played at Commonwealth Stadium. The 2005 edition saw all matches being played in Edmonton, with the final drawing a crowd of 17,000. In the 2006 edition the three finals were played at Commonwealth Stadium. The 2006 Women's Rugby World Cup was hosted in Edmonton and its suburb, St. Albert. Most of the Edmonton games were played at Ellerslie Rugby Park, but the final, third-place match and fifth-place match were all played at Commonwealth Stadium.  In 1980, the venue hosted a Billy Graham event during his Northern Canada Crusade. In 1983, the Edmonton Trappers AAA baseball team defeated the California Angels of MLB in an exhibition baseball game witnessed by a crowd of 24,830."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Stakes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Stakes is a race for Thoroughbred horses run at Keeneland in Lexington, Kentucky each year. The race is open to horses age four and up willing to race seven furlongs on the polytrack. It is a Grade III event currently offering a current purse of $250,000."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Star", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Star (also known as the Federation Star, the Seven Point Star, or the Star of Federation) is a seven-pointed star symbolising the Federation of Australia which came into force on 1 January 1901. Six points of the Star represent the six original states of the Commonwealth of Australia, while the seventh point represents the territories and any other future states of Australia. The original star had only six points; however, the proclamation in 1905 of the Territory of Papua led to the addition of the seventh point in 1909 to represent it and future territories."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Star is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Australian flag, as opposed to the similar flag of New Zealand. Although the term \"Federation Star\" is frequently used, the term \"Commonwealth Star\" is the official name. This is because that was the name ascribed to the star by the Australian Government when the Australian flag was adopted and such adoption gazetted in the official Government gazette. The Commonwealth Star is found on both the flag of Australia and the Coat of Arms of Australia. On the Australian flag the Star appears in the lower hoist quarter, beneath the representation of the Union flag, and as four of the five stars making up the Southern Cross on the fly. In the Coat of Arms, the Star forms the crest, atop a blue and gold wreath."}, {"context": " The Star also appears on the badges of the Australian Defence Force and Australian Federal Police, although the badges of the Australian Army, Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force feature the St Edward's Crown, as in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. In the event of the country becoming a republic, it has been suggested that the Commonwealth Star replace the Crown. The Star is also used on numerous Australian medals, including the National Police Service Medal, the Defence Force Service Medal, the civilian Star of Courage, the Public Service Medal, the Ambulance Service Medal and the Australian Police Medal.  With the marriage of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark to Mary Donaldson (now the Crown Princess Mary) in 2004, Princess Mary was honoured with the Order of the Elephant. The chief field of the Crown Princess' coat of arms shows two gold Commonwealth Stars from the Coat of arms of Australia."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Steel Company", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Steel Company was an American steel company based in Granite City, Illinois and founded in 1901 \"by some of the young men who had helped establish the American Steel Foundry\". The company produced steel castings and railroad supplies at its plant, employing about 1,500 people. Over the years, the company's innovative steel castings products made Commonwealth an increasingly important manufacturer and supplier to the rail industry. By 1928 \"practically all locomotives and passenger cars built in the United States\" were using Commonwealth products. The significance of the company to the rail industry became evident when two locomotive manufacturers, and customers of Commonwealth, Baldwin Locomotive Company and American Locomotive Company, formed General Steel Castings Corporation in 1928 and acquired Commonwealth and its products in 1929."}, {"context": " Clarence H. Howard, who controlled the Double Body Bolster Company, received orders for cast-steel bolsters for railroad passenger cars to be used in an exhibit at the upcoming 1904 St. Louis World's Fair but his company was unable to produce bolsters of the specified size. Cast steel bolsters of that size had not been previously manufactured. Mr. Howard negotiated with the Commonwealth Steel Company to produce the new steel bolsters and he assisted during the production process. Clarence H. Howard, along with his former schoolmates, H. M. Pflager, and G. K. Hoblitzelle assumed control of Commonwealth in 1904. Mr. Howard would head the company for 23 years and retire in April 1931, two years after Commonwealth merged with General Steel Castings Corporation and only months before his death in December 1931."}, {"context": " The company was supportive of Americanization (helping foreigners adapt to the American way of life) efforts at Lincoln Place, providing free English-language classes to foreign-speaking immigrants, and was strongly in favor of Prohibition. An article in the December 1915 issue of \"The Commonwealther\" was titled \"A saloon is sometimes called a bar - and so it is!\" The company also encouraged fellowship and the Golden Rule through the Fellowship Club. The company established the Commonwealth School in 1906 to serve the educational needs of \"Commonwealthers.\" Apprentices would be given up to four hours a week, on company time, to study mathematics, mechanical drawing, and blue print reading."}, {"context": " The company's school program expanded with the addition of a high school program in December 1923. Conducted in cooperation with the local high school, Community High School, authorities of Granite City, Illinois and State educational authorities, the graduates of Commonwealth School's High School program received diplomas with the regular graduates of Community High School. By the end of 1927, the Commonwealth School was offering the following programs with almost 200 employees enrolled: Apprentice School, Night School Drawing, Eighth Grade School, High School, University Extension Courses, Special Engineering Class, Trade Knowledge Courses, Scholarships, and School Dinners."}, {"context": " Employees shared in the company's profits. Meetings of the company's profit-sharing plan, known as the Commonwealth Plan, would start with the reciting of the Lord's Prayer and, in at least one meeting, the singing of \"America\". The Platform of the \"Commonwealth Plan\", read in part: \"Fellowship is the Golden Rule in action, the motive power of human engineering, the life-blood of service, insuring equal opportunity for all. The Commonwealth Plan recognizes all problems as mutual, wherein and whereby absolute confidence exists in the honesty of purpose and truth of character of each other; thus blending brotherly love in all activities and enabling each to develop his several talents.\""}, {"context": " Commonwealth set the standard for innovation. In 1908, the company cast the first one-piece rectangular tender frame and overcame problems producing castings of up to long after developing special machining equipment. During World War I, the company produced cast steel frames for gun tractors and locomotive castings. The company grew and by 1913 the company\u2019s payroll exceeded $110,000 ($2,420,000 in 2010 dollars) for each pay period. In 1924, the company finished the design and manufactured a one-piece underframe structure, or bed, for a steam locomotive and delivered it to the New York Central Railroad. Also in 1924, the company embarked on a $1,500,000 ($33 million in 2010 dollars) expansion that included increasing the size of the foundry to a total length of making it \"probably the largest Open Hearth steel foundry building in the world\", increased plant capacity by 35%, and was producing the \"largest steel castings in the world\"."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth plant also grew to cover . The company's success in supplying large castings and parts to the rail industry necessitated the need for more capacity. Originally covering , the plant grew to in 1915 to about , with almost under roof, by 1924. With the completion of the new General Office Building on the site of its plant at 1417 State Street in Granite City, Illinois, the company's headquarters was relocated from the Pierce Building in St. Louis, Missouri to Granite City beginning on February 23, 1926. By 1927, the facility expanded to with the plant itself covering approximately . The foundry alone was over a third of a mile long, ."}, {"context": " In 1926, the company produced a \"one-piece locomotive bed with cylinders, steam chests, and saddle cast integral\" and delivered it to the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis and, during this same period, cast steel underframes and trucks were developed for electric locomotives. By 1928, \"practically all locomotives and passenger cars built in the United States\" were made using products manufactured at the Commonwealth plant. An April 12, 1929 \"St. Louis Post-Dispatch\" newspaper article, reprinted in the April 1929 issue of \"The Commonwealther\", noted \"[t]he Commonwealth, largely because of its one-piece castings, does business with railroads all over the world. It is commonly thought not to have a competitor in the production of a one-piece frame for locomotives and coaches, a feat of casting that has at once made its business unique and added immensely to the safety of railroad travel.\""}, {"context": " The importance of Commonwealth Steel to the railroad industry was not overlooked by the industry and was underscored when two major locomotive companies, American Locomotive Company and Baldwin Locomotive Company, along with the American Steel Foundries, organized General Steel Castings Corporation in 1928 and subsequently purchased Commonwealth Steel. The April 1929 issue of \"The Commonwealther\" printed a statement from the president of the company, Clarence Howard, announcing Commonwealth Steel was \"working out a plan of unification\" with the newly created General Steel Castings Corporation."}, {"context": " With a capitalization of $10 million, the company was acquired by the newly formed General Steel Castings Corporation for a reported $35 million. The merge was effective \"definitely on July 30, 1929\" and the Commonwealth Steel Company became the \"Commonwealth Division\" of General Steel Castings Corporation. General Steel's \"Eddystone Division\" would consist of a new foundry, still under construction in 1929, on the banks of the Delaware River in Eddystone, Pennsylvania, near Baldwin Locomotive's facilities."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Stream", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Stream () is a meltwater stream in Taylor Valley which flows east from Commonwealth Glacier into New Harbour of McMurdo Sound. It was studied on the ground during U.S. Navy Operation Deepfreeze, 1957\u201358, by Troy L. Pewe, who suggested the name in association with Commonwealth Glacier."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Study Conference", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The first Commonwealth Study Conference held in Oxford, United Kingdom in 1956 to study the human aspects of industrial issues across Commonwealth countries. The founder of the conference, HRH Prince Philip, The Duke of Edinburgh, described it as \"an extraordinary experiment\" that provided an opportunity for people from all over the Commonwealth and all walks of life to leave their usual roles and, with a diverse group of people, examine the relationship between industry and the community around it."}, {"context": " The participants are drawn from all sectors of society and particularly included people from government bodies, non-governmental organizations (NGOS), trade unions and businesses. On average 300 people attend such a conference and are afforded a unique opportunity to examine a broad range of society, how each component functions and its interactions with others. Since 1956 ten separate Commonwealth Study Conferences have taken place, variously hosted in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Malaysia and the United Kingdom. A number of related Regional conferences have also been held."}, {"context": " In 2006 a comprehensive 204 page book Leadership In The Making was published in Canada, celebrating 50 years since the first conference in 1956. Prince Phillip describes how the idea came about: \"The idea for the conference arose as a result of my visit to Canada in 1954. I had asked to visit some of the new and developing industries in Canada's far north on the way home from the Commonwealth Games in Vancouver. \"Two things struck me. The great majority of these developments were 'single-industry' enterprises, and in most cases the towns associated with the industries were 'company towns'. This is not typical for an industrialised country, but it had the effect of drawing my attention to one of the basic problems faced by industrial communities. While a company in control of an industrial enterprise has to be based on a system of managerial and technical qualifications, the town in which all the workers and the management have to live needs to be managed by some democratic system involving all the inhabitants as citizens.  \"The purpose of the conference was to look into the tensions, problems and opportunities created by this dichotomy between industrial enterprise and community development.\""}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Sugar Agreement", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Sugar Agreement (\"CSA\") between the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth exporting territories was signed in December 1951. It provided for export quotas totalling 2,375,000 tons of raw sugar. Australia, in accordance with the agreement reached in the 1949 sugar negotiations, received a quota of 600,000 tons. Out of the total quotas of 2,375,000 tons, 1,640,000 tons would be purchased by the United Kingdom Ministry of Food at a price to be negotiated annually, which would be calculated to provide a reasonably remunerative return to efficient producers.  The Commonwealth Sugar Agreement terminated in 1974."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth System of Higher Education", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth System of Higher Education is a statutory designation by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania that confers \"state-related\" status on four universities located within the state. The designation establishes the schools as an \"instrumentality of the commonwealth\" and provides each university with annual, non-preferred financial appropriations in exchange offering tuition discounts to students who are residents of Pennsylvania and a minority state-representation on each school's board of trustees. Legally, however, the universities remain separate and private entities, operating under their own charters, governed by independent boards of trustees, and with its assets under their own ownership and control, thereby retaining much of the freedom and individuality of private institutions, both administratively and academically. It is the only public-private hybrid system of higher education in the United States that is so construed, although Cornell University, the University of Delaware, and Rutgers University represent alternative types of public-private university hybrids."}, {"context": " Universities of the Commonwealth System are considered public universities by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching because they offer reduced tuition for citizens of the Commonwealth and therefore are often referred to as \"public\" universities in publications, by the state, and the schools themselves. Because their annual state allocations that supplement less than 10% of their budgets, universities in the Commonwealth System tend to have higher tuition costs compared to the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education which contains 14 state-owned and operated universities. Because of their independence, universities in the Commonwealth System are exempt from Pennsylvania's Open Records law except for a few minor provisions."}, {"context": " Before the creation of the \"state-related\" legal status in the 1960s, Lincoln University, Temple University, and University of Pittsburgh were fully private universities. Temple and Pitt were granted state-related status by acts of Commonwealth's legislature in 1965 and 1966, respectively. Lincoln University, a historically black university, was designated as a state-related university in 1972. Although the Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) was founded as a private school, it was later designated as the Commonwealth's sole land-grant institution. It was repeatedly defined as a \"state-owned university\" in numerous official acts and Pennsylvania Attorney General opinions from its creation as a land-grant, then named the Pennsylvania State College, in 1855. It was thus applicable to having its road system and buildings on state campuses constructed using state funding, paying its employees through state-issued checks, and having them eligible to collect state employee retirement system benefits."}, {"context": " Penn State was already treated and referred to as a public state-related university by the Commonwealth, including receiving non-preferred appropriations, when the other three universities were designated as state-related institutions by the legislature. In 1989, Penn State asserted a public status in court for the purpose of not having a private bank branch's operations on its University Park campus subject to local county taxes, while simultaneously asserting private status for the purpose of not having to reveal the salaries of its top administrative employees. With the enabling legislation changing the failing Williamsport (PA) Area Community College to the affiliated \"Pennsylvania College of Technology\" in 1989, Penn State was reaffirmed as a \"state-related\" institution.  The following universities (listed with their branch and regional campuses) are members of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education Endowments Research and Development Expenditures (FY 2011)"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Table Tennis Championships", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Table Tennis Championships was born at a meeting of Commonwealth delegates in Munich at the 1969 World Championships. Prior to inclusion in the Commonwealth Games proper in 2002, 15 Commonwealth Championships have taken place since 1971."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships are held every two years, in every year the Commonwealth and Olympic Games are held. They are sanctioned by the Commonwealth Taekwondo Union, the Commonwealth Games Federation and the World Taekwondo Federation and involve world class competitors, making them a major event in Taekwondo. The first Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships were held in Brisbane, Queensland, on 14 and 15 October 2006. The host was Taekwondo Australia Inc. In 2008, the Taekwondo Championships were held from November 21 to 23 at the MTS Center in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.  The 3rd Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships were held in Brisbane, Australia and included: The award for the placings in the Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships are medals. Taekwondo is now a Category 2 Commonwealth Games Sport and may feature in future Commonwealth Games."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO) traces to the British Empire's Pacific Cable Board in 1901, though in its current form, was created by International treaty, the \"Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement\" between Commonwealth Nations signed in London on 11 May 1948. The CTO connects government and non-government entities to enhance cooperation in Information and communication technology (ICT). The government members of the CTO are: ICT Sector Members include Avanti Communications, British Telecom, Facebook, Huawei, Intelsat, PwC London, Safaricom, and Vodafone."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Televiews", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Televiews was a Canadian documentary television series which aired on CBC Television from 1957 to 1958. This series featured reports from various nations of the British Commonwealth for Canadian audiences, produced in co-operation with Britain's Information Service. Topics included the Arts Council of Great Britain, life in contemporary Harlow, an interview with Kwame Nkrumah, who was Prime Minister of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), nuclear power featuring Robert McKenzie's interview with John Cockcroft and an interview of Robert Scott, Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia, by Matthew Halton.  This 15-minute series was broadcast Sundadays at 12:15\u00a0p.m. (Eastern) in two seasons, six episodes from 13 January to 17 February 1957, then several episodes from 2 February to 6 April 1958."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships is an event open to all national World Bowling member federations, which participate in tenpin bowling and are countries within the Commonwealth or all national tenpin bowling federations and/or associations (Non-WB) who are within the Commonwealth and participate in tenpin bowling. Eligible members send two men and two women to compete for medals in Singles, Doubles, Mixed Doubles, Team, All-Events, and Masters. The CTBF was founded on August 28, 2002 in Stirling, Scotland. CTBF was created to foster a greater and more focused interest in tenpin bowling and international friendship between all nations within the Commonwealth. The CTBF will affiliate to the sport\u2019s international governing body, World Bowling, with its prime focus being to successfully stage Commonwealth Championships that will ultimately meld into the official Commonwealth Games program."}, {"context": " The inaugural Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Stirling, Scotland. England won seven out of a possible ten gold medals. Donna Adams won gold in singles, all-events, masters, mixed doubles, and team. India's Shaik Abdul Hameed won two gold medals, in singles and masters. The second Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Paphos, Cyprus. Malaysia won six out of a possible ten gold medals. Shalin Zulkifli won gold in all-events, masters, mixed doubles, and team."}, {"context": " The third Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Melbourne, Australia. England won five gold medals, but Australia won the most medals, with eleven (three gold, four silver, and four bronze). England's Fiona Banks won gold in doubles, masters, and mixed doubles. The fourth Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Belfast, Northern Ireland. England and Malaysia each won four gold medals, with Singapore winning the remaining two gold medals. The fifth Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Three nations dominated this edition, with Singapore winning four gold medals and three each for England and Malaysia."}, {"context": " The sixth Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Auckland, New Zealand. Australia won four gold medals, three by Sam Cooley in singles, all-events, and masters. The seventh Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships were held in Johannesburg, South Africa from November 19-27. Malaysia won seven of the ten events and led the medal tally with 13 (7 gold, 5 silver, 1 bronze). Malaysia's Muhammad Nur Aiman won four gold medals (Singles, All-Events, Masters, Mixed Team Event) and a silver medal (Doubles)."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Theaters", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Theaters, Inc. was a movie theater chain based in Kansas City, Missouri, USA. In 1936, Commonwealth purchased its headquarters in downtown Kansas City, part of a \"film row\" that hosted several regional film distribution companies. In 1983, Commonwealth went private through a merger with CMN Capital Corp. By 1984, Commonwealth was reported to be one of the largest movie theater chains in the country, with over 400 screens in 14 states. Film production company Cannon Group announced in 1986 that it had agreed to purchase Commonwealth for $25 million in cash plus the assumption of $50 to $60 million in debt. At this time, Commonwealth was the sixth-largest theater chain in the country, comprising 425 screens in 12 states, with plans to open 70 more screens that year. Within six months, Cannon ran into serious financial problems. These problems led to Renta Immobiliarla S.A., a Spanish-based group, acquiring a significant stake in Cannon, and Cannon put Commonwealth up for sale. Renta subsequently acquired complete control of Commonwealth in January 1988. One month later, Renta announced the formation of a joint venture with United_Artists_Communications, a theater chain then controlled by Tele-Communications Inc. Under the terms of the joint venture, each party would control 50% of Commonwealth. Later press reports characterize the transfer of ownership as a purchase by United Artists, rather than a joint venture.  By 1991, the downtown Kansas City headquarters building had closed. United Artists reportedly sold off many former Commonwealth screens on a market-by-market basis."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Tournament", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Tournament was a men's team golf tournament between teams of amateurs golfers from Great Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. It was played roughly every four years, in 1954, 1959, 1963, 1967, 1971 and 1975. In 1971 and 1975 there were only four teams, South Africa did not compete in 1971 while Australia missed the 1975 event. Each team played the others. Each match was contested over one day with foursomes in the morning and singles matches in the afternoon. There were 3 foursomes and 6 singles in each match."}, {"context": " The first tournament was organised to celebrate the bicentenary of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews. It was played on the Old Course at St Andrews from 1 to 5 June. The teams were: Source: The second tournament was held at the Royal Johannesburg Golf Club from 3 to 7 November. The teams were: Source: The third tournament was held at the Royal Sydney Golf Club from 15 to 19 October. The teams were: Source: The fourth tournament was held at the Victoria Golf Club, British Columbia, Canada from 9 to 13 August."}, {"context": " The teams were: Source: The fifth tournament was held at the Auckland Golf Club from 20 to 24 August. There were only four teams, South Africa withdrawing because of threats of anti-apartheid demonstrations. With only three rounds of matches, the tournament was originally planned to be played on 20, 21 and 23 August. Rain on the first day meant that the first round of matches was not completed until 21 August, the second round being moved to the following day. Further bad weather caused the final round of matches to be delayed by a day. The event was called the New Zealand Golf Centennial Tournament, celebrating the centenary of golf in New Zealand.  The teams were: Source: The sixth tournament was held at the Royal Durban Golf Club from 20 to 22 November. There were only four teams, Australia did not compete. The teams were: Source:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Trade Union Group", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Trade Union Group (abbreviated CTUG) is a London-based international alliance of trade union in the Commonwealth countries. It was previously known as the Commonwealth Trade Union Council (abbreviated CTUC). As of 2007, the combined membership of CTUG affiliates reached 30 million. The decision to set up the CTUC was taken at the Commonwealth Trade Union Conference, held in June 1979. In November 1979 a number of trade unions of the Commonwealth agreed to a set of proposals issued by a special working party launched at the June 1979 conference. The official founding of CTUC took place in March 1980, with Canadian Labour Congress president Dennis McDermott as the CTUC chairman and Carl Wright as the director of the organization. The stated goal of the CTUC was to guarantee that 'trade union views are taken into account by Commonwealth government and institutions'. As of 1982 the CTUC Steering Committee included McDermott (Chairman), Gopeshwar (India), W. Richardson (Australia), F. F. Walcott (Barbados), Wright, N. K. Bhatt (India), J. Harker (Canada), L. Osunde (Nigeria), E. Mashasi (Tanzania), K. Mehta (India) and R. L. Thaker (India). Shirley Carr also served as chair of CTUC.  CTUC took part in founding the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative in 1987. In 1988 Patrick Quinn became director of CTUC, in 1994 Arthur Johnstone was named new director of CTUC. CTUC was reconstructed as CTUG on December 31, 2004. The group works in cooperation with the International Trade Union Confederation. CTUG is accredited at the Commonwealth Foundation (through ITUC)."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Trading Bank Building", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Trading Bank Building, also known as the Commonwealth Bank Building, is an historically significant building in the Sydney central business district, New South Wales, Australia, located on the corner of Pitt Street and Martin Place. It was formerly the headquarters of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, which for a significant part of the 20th century functioned as Australia's central bank. The Commonwealth Bank was created in 1911 under order of Prime Minister Andrew Fisher. Its head office was designed by architect John Kirkpatrick, who was the cousin of the bank's governor. In August 1916, the building opened. The building was expanded with extensions designed by E.H. Henderson and F. Hill between 1929 and 1933 along Pitt Street, and in 1966 construction was begun on an annex facing Martin Place, completed in 1967."}, {"context": " From 2012 the building was extensively refurbished. The 1960s extension was rebuilt, while much of the 1916 building and 1930s extension was stripped out and refurbished. The building now houses retail space in the old banking hall. The building was listed on the now defunct Register of the National Estate between 1978 until the register's abolition in 2007, but it is now listed on the City of Sydney local government heritage register. The building is described as a national symbol, \"the first and very substantial physical manifestation of the powers that the Commonwealth Government acquired in the area of banking after the federation of the Australian colonies.\" The building is also regarded as significant for its design, combining Grecian Doric, Art Deco and other influences."}, {"context": " The image of the building itself became familiar to many people across Australia during the 20th century through its use on money boxes issued by the Commonwealth Bank to children starting from 1922. The money boxes were rectangular shape, roughly reflecting the dimensions of the bank building, and printed with the building's exterior. As a result, it is referred to as the \"money box building\". (The State Savings Bank building at 48 Martin Place was also featured on some later money boxes, and is also sometimes called the \"money box building\")."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The 1955\u201358 Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (CTAE) was a Commonwealth-sponsored expedition that successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica, via the South Pole. It was the first expedition to reach the South Pole overland for 46 years, preceded only by Amundsen's and Scott's respective parties in 1911 and 1912. In keeping with the tradition of polar expeditions of the \"heroic age\" the CTAE was a private venture, though it was supported by the governments of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, United States, Australia and South Africa, as well as many corporate and individual donations, under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth II. It was headed by British explorer Sir Vivian Fuchs, with New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. The New Zealand party included scientists participating in International Geophysical Year (IGY) research while the UK IGY team were separately based at Halley Bay."}, {"context": " Fuchs was knighted for his accomplishment. The second overland crossing of the continent did not occur until 1981, during the Transglobe Expedition led by Ranulph Fiennes. Preparations began in London in 1955. Over the austral summer of 1955\u201356 Fuchs sailed with an advance party from London to Antarctica in the Canadian sealer \"Theron\", with the purpose of establishing Shackleton Base near Vahsel Bay on the Weddell Sea, from which the trans-Antarctic expedition would begin. The \"Theron\", like its immediate forebears, the \"Endurance\" (1914 Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition) and the \"Deutschland\" (Filchner's German Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1911), was trapped in the ice. Despite sustaining considerable damage, she was able to free herself with the help of the Auster Antarctic floatplane that scouted a way out. In early 1956 Fuchs sailed back to London, leaving eight men to over-winter at Shackleton."}, {"context": " The eight men of the advance party, led by Kenneth Blaiklock, were left on the ice, having only tents and a packing crate as shelter. Most of the stores were left on the bay ice, some two miles (3\u00a0km) from the site of where the base was to be set up. Their first task was to get all these stores from the bay ice to the base and to try to build some permanent shelter for the oncoming winter. Once some food and paraffin had been brought up and the dogs safely tethered by the base, the men started to build their hut. This proved to be far more difficult than had been envisaged \u2013 not only were the eight men insufficient in number to carry out the heavy tasks easily but the weather at Shackleton was colder and much windier than had been anticipated. When the skeleton of the hut was complete, the men positioned the crates containing the wall and roof panels around the building site. Then a blizzard began, and lasted for more than a week. The temperature dropped to \u221220\u00a0\u00b0C and the drift around the base made it impossible to do any work outside. The men sheltered in their crate and slept in their tents which were constantly in danger of getting buried by the drift. When finally the wind subsided the giant crates of wall panels had all disappeared under many feet of drift and the unfinished hut itself was full of snow. The bay ice had broken off taking all the remaining stores with it. Much food and fuel, a couple of huts and a tractor had all gone to sea."}, {"context": " The men tried to retrieve the crates by tunnelling under the snow; the tunnels proved to be useful kennels for the dogs protecting them from the unexpectedly severe winter conditions at Shackleton. The party of eight survived the winter with some difficulty, but in reasonably good health, and finally completed the building of the hut except for one hole in the roof, the panel for which was never found. While the hut was being constructed they lived by day in the tractor crate and slept in their tents, two men to each tent. The winter temperatures often fell well below \u221230\u00a0\u00b0C, and Shackleton proved to be a very windy place, which made work outdoors unpleasant. All stores lying in the snow tended to get buried and there was a constant danger of them getting lost."}, {"context": " They managed to take a number of journeys to collect seals for the dogs and to scout a route to the south. They used dogs and the Weasel tractor, while the one Snocat that they had never functioned properly as it seemed that someone had dropped a nut into one of its eight cylinders. In December 1956 Fuchs returned on Danish Polar vessel \"Magga Dan\" with additional supplies, and the southern summer of 1956\u20131957 was spent consolidating Shackleton Base and establishing the smaller South Ice Base about inland to the south."}, {"context": " After spending the winter of 1957 at Shackleton Base, Fuchs finally set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve-man team travelling in six vehicles; three Sno-Cats, two Weasels and one specially adapted \"Muskeg\" tractor. En route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings. In parallel Hillary's team had set up Scott Basewhich was to be Fuchs' final destinationon the opposite side of the continent at McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea. Using three converted Massey Ferguson TE20 tractors and one Weasel (abandoned part-way), Hillary and his three men (Ron Balham, Peter Mulgrew and Murray Ellis), were responsible for route-finding and laying a line of supply depots up the Skelton Glacier and across the Polar Plateau on towards the South Pole, for the use of Fuchs on the final leg of his journey. Other members of Hillary's team carried out geological surveys around the Ross Sea and Victoria Land areas."}, {"context": " It was not originally intended that Hillary would travel as far as the South Pole, but when he had completed laying supply depots he saw the opportunity to beat the British and continued south, reaching the Polewhere the US Amundsen\u2013Scott South Pole Station had recently been established by airon 3 January 1958. Hillary's party was just the third (preceded by Amundsen in 1911 and Scott in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Hillary's arrival also marked the first time that land vehicles had ever reached the Pole."}, {"context": " Fuchs' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid, while Hillary flew back to Scott Base in a US plane (he would later rejoin Fuchs by plane for part of the remaining overland journey). The overland party finally arrived at Scott Base on 2 March 1958, having completed the historic crossing of 3,473\u00a0km (2,158 miles) of previously unexplored snow and ice in 99 days. A few days later the expedition members left Antarctica for New Zealand on the New Zealand naval ship \"Endeavour\". The ship was captained by Harry Kirkwood."}, {"context": " Although large quantities of supplies were hauled overland, both parties were also equipped with light aircraft and made extensive use of air support for reconnaissance and supplies. Additional logistical help was provided by US personnel who were working in Antarctica at that time. Both parties also took dog teams which were used for fieldwork trips and backup in case of failure of the mechanical transportation, though the dogs were not taken all the way to the Pole. In December 1957 four men from the expedition flew one of the planesa de Havilland Canada Otteron an eleven-hour, non-stop trans-polar flight across the Antarctic continent from Shackleton Base via the Pole to Scott Base, following roughly the same route as Fuchs' overland party."}, {"context": " One of the Tucker Sno-Cats used during the expedition was exhibited by BP (who provided the lubrication) during summer 1958 following return to the UK. The location is in Great Charles Street in Birmingham near the Council House. The expedition was commemorated in a 2007 5-stamp set issued by New Zealand Post. The stamps highlight air transport (the 50c), the role of the sledge ($1.00); dog teams ($1.50), mechanized tractors caching supplies ($2.00), and HMNZS Endeavour ($2.50) which carried the Ross Sea support party and equipment.  A small image of a modified Ferguson TE20 tractor from the expedition is also found on the New Zealand five dollar note, the design of which features Sir Edmund Hillary."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Transportation Board", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Transportation Board, formerly the State Highway and Transportation Board, regulates and funds transportation in Virginia. It oversees the Virginia Department of Transportation. The Board consists of seventeen members: The citizen members are appointed by the Governor to four-year terms, subject to confirmation by the General Assembly, and removable from office by the Governor at his pleasure. The Secretary of Transportation serves as chairman of the Board. The Board has power to:"}, {"context": " All of these powers must be exercised within the framework of state law. As of 2008, Virginia operated 42 rest stops and visitor centers along its interstate highways. In response to budget pressures, the Board sought public input and determined to reduce costs by closing 19 rest stops and expanding the truck parking lots at the remaining stops to accommodate the trucks that would other park and sleep at the stops designated for closing. The Board also removed the two-hour limit on truck parking. The closures began on July 21, 2009 The Board's funding options were limited, because Federal law 23 U.S.C. \u00a7111 prohibits commercialization of interstate highway rest stops. The closing resulted in a $9 million annual saving. At the Board's first meeting in January 2010, it reversed the decision to close the rest stops and reassigned $3 million in highway maintenance funds to keep the 19 rest stops open until the end of the fiscal year. No long-term funding source was identified."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Turf Cup", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Turf Cup is an American Thoroughbred horse race held each year since 2015 at Laurel Park in Laurel, Maryland. It was previously known as the Colonial Turf Cup when it was held at Colonial Downs race track in New Kent County, Virginia. It is raced on turf at a distance of one mile and is open to horses aged three years old and up. The current purse is $200,000. In 2009, the race was upgraded from a Grade III to a Grade II event. In 2011, the race changed its conditions to allow entry of older horses. This change caused the race to lose its graded status until 2013, when it again became a Grade II event.  From 2005 to 2013, the race was run at miles. For the 2015 renewal, the distance was shortened to miles, and in 2016 to 1 mile. Fastest time: Most wins by an owner: Most wins by a jockey: Most wins by a Trainer:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Turf Stakes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Turf Stakes is an American Thoroughbred horse race held annually in mid November at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. Open to three-year-old horses, it is contested on turf over a distance of one and one sixteenth miles (8.5 furlongs). Inaugurated in 2004, the Commonwealth Turf Stakes was elevated to Grade III status in 2008."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth United Entertainment", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth United Entertainment, formerly known as \"Television Enterprises Corporation\" and was also known as Commonwealth United Corporation after its parent corporation, was an American film production and distribution company active to 1971. It was headed by Milton T. Raynor. The company was sometimes considered one of the \"instant majors\" of the late 1960s. The company also briefly operated a record label, Commonwealth United Records. Commonwealth United Corporation was originally a real estate holding company formed in 1961 as the Real Properties Corporation. It changed its name to CUC in 1965. In 1967, CUC acquired Television Enterprises Corporation (TVC). Milton T. Raynor moved to California and became vice-president at TVE. Later, Raynor took over ownership."}, {"context": " In 1967, Commonwealth United Corporation acquired Television Enterprises Corporation and was renamed Commonwealth United Entertainment (CUE). In 1967, CUE produced 17 theatrical films and purchased publishing and recording interests. The Max Factor family financed \"That Cold Day in the Park\", a movie directed by Robert Altman that CUE released in 1969. By 1971, CUE was $80 million in debt. The company's film rights, foreign and domestic, were acquired by National Telefilm Associates and American International Pictures."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Utilities", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Utilities was a men's fashion label based in New York City. Its name is derived from the fact that designers Anthony Keegan and Richard Christiansen are originally from the Commonwealth of Nations (Canada and Australia, respectively). Ice hockey player Sean Avery worked with Commonwealth Utilities for Fashion Week 2009 in New York City."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Veteran Fencing Championships", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Veteran Fencing Championships is a sport-specific event held in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is an age-restricted event for fencers aged 40 and above, organised by the Commonwealth Veterans Fencing Association in cooperation with the Commonwealth Fencing Federation. The first championships were held in 1995 and subsequently held on each odd-numbered year until 2009. From 2010, the event timing was changed to occur on even-numbered years so every second event coincides with the Commonwealth Fencing Championships and Commonwealth Games."}, {"context": " The first championships were held in Loughborough, England. Five countries competed: Canada, England, Isle of Man, Northern Ireland and Wales. The second championships were held in the Isle of Man. Seven countries competed: Alderney, England, Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. The third championships were held in Johannesburg, South Africa. Six countries competed: Australia, England, Isle of Man, Scotland, South Africa, Wales. The fourth championships were held in Wrexham, North Wales. Nine countries competed: Australia, Canada, England, Guernsey, Northern Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Wales."}, {"context": " The fifth championships were held in Sydney, Australia. Eight countries competed: Australia, England, Isle of Man, Jersey, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. The sixth championships were held in Edinburgh, Scotland. Nine countries competed: Australia, Canada, England, Isle of Man, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland, South Africa and Wales. The seventh championships were held in Toronto, Canada. Seven countries competed: Australia, Canada, England, Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales."}, {"context": " The eighth championships were held in St Helier, Jersey. Twelve countries competed: Australia, Canada, England, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa and Wales. The ninth championships were held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia from 30 September to 5 October 2010. This was the first such event to be held in conjunction with the tenth Commonwealth Fencing Championships. In the veterans' events, 85 competitors took part from twelve countries: Australia, Canada, England, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey, New Zealand, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Singapore, South Africa and Wales.  The tenth championships were held in Singapore from 27 to 30 September 2012. There were 157 individual entries and 25 team entries from eleven countries: Australia, Canada, England, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey, Malaysia, New Zealand, Scotland, Singapore and Wales. The eleventh championships are held in Largs, near Glasgow, Scotland from 16 to 19 November 2014. Northern Irish competitor Gillian Robinson was one of only 3 gold medals won by Northern Ireland at the 2014 Commonwealth Games."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth War Graves Commission", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is an intergovernmental organisation of six independent member states whose principal function is to mark, record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of Commonwealth of Nations military service members who died in the two World Wars. The Commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II. The Commission was founded by Sir Fabian Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 named the Imperial War Graves Commission. The change to the present name took place in 1960."}, {"context": " The Commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally. To this end, the war dead are commemorated by name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, race or creed. The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7\u00a0million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153\u00a0countries. Since its inception, the Commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries and numerous memorials. The Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200\u00a0memorials worldwide. In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members, the Commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves. The Commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states: United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India and South Africa. The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward, Duke of Kent."}, {"context": " At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Fabian Ware, a director of the Rio Tinto Company, found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army. He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman, Viscount Milner, to become the commander of a mobile unit of the British Red Cross. He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose. In March 1915, with the support of Nevil Macready, Adjutant-General of the British Expeditionary Force, Ware's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves Registration Commission. The new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000\u00a0graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916."}, {"context": " When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French cemeteries under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government. Ware eventually concluded that it was not prudent to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land, grant it in perpetuity, and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British. The French government agreed under the condition that cemeteries respected certain dimensions, were accessible by public road, were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages. Similar negotiations began with the Belgian government."}, {"context": " As reports of the grave registration work became public, the Commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers. By 1917, 17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives. In March 1915, the Commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests. The Graves Registration Commission became the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to enquiries from relatives of those killed. The directorate's work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia."}, {"context": " As the war continued, Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. Following a suggestion by the British Army, the government appointed the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves in January 1916, with Edward, Prince of Wales agreeing to serve as president. The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration and Enquiries after the war. The government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department.<ref name=\"WO 32/9433\"></ref> By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help of Edward, Prince of Wales, Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted. The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter, with the Prince of Wales serving as president, Secretary of State for War Lord Derby as chairman and Ware as vice-chairman. The Commission's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified and a further 559,000 casualties were registered as having no known grave."}, {"context": " The scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead. Previous to World War I, individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers. However, the war required mobilisation of a significant percentage of the population, either as volunteers or through conscription. An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated, even if they were low-ranking members of the military. A committee under Frederic Kenyon, Director of the British Museum, presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the cemeteries. Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions. Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses, it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of brotherhood that had developed between serving ranks."}, {"context": " An article in \"The Times\" on 17 February 1919 by Rudyard Kipling carried the Commission's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like. The article entitled \"War Graves: Work of Imperial Commission: Mr. Kipling's Survey\" was quickly republished as an illustrated booklet, \"Graves of the Fallen\". The illustrated booklet was intended to soften the impact of Kenyon's report as it included illustrations of cemeteries with mature trees and shrubs; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos. There was an immediate public outcry following the publication of the reports, particularly with regards to the decision to not repatriate the bodies of the dead. The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920. Sir James Remnant started the debate, followed by speeches by William Burdett-Coutts in favour of the Commission's principles and Robert Cecil speaking for those desiring repatriation and opposing uniformity of grave markers. Winston Churchill closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote. Remnant withdrew his motion, allowing the Commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles."}, {"context": " In 1918, three of the most eminent architects of their day, Sir Herbert Baker, Sir Reginald Blomfield, and Sir Edwin Lutyens were appointed as the organization's initial Principal Architects. Rudyard Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions. In 1920, the Commission built three experimental cemeteries at Le Treport, Forceville and Louvencourt, following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report. Of these, the Forceville Communal Cemetery and Extension was agreed to be the most successful. Having consulted with garden designer Gertrude Jekyll, the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform headstones in a garden setting, augmented by Blomfield's Cross of Sacrifice and Lutyens' Stone of Remembrance. After some adjustments, Forceville became the template for the Commission's building programme. Cost overruns at all three experimental cemeteries necessitated some adjustments. To ensure future cemeteries remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in cemeteries that contained less than 200\u00a0graves, to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400\u00a0graves, and to limit the height of cemetery walls to ."}, {"context": " At the end of 1919, the Commission had spent \u00a37,500, and this figure rose to \u00a3250,000 in 1920 as construction of cemeteries and memorials increased. By 1921, the Commission had established 1,000\u00a0cemeteries which were ready for headstone erections, and burials. Between 1920 and 1923, the Commission was shipping 4,000\u00a0headstones a week to France. In many cases, the Commission closed small cemeteries and concentrated the graves into larger ones. By 1927, when the majority of construction had been completed, over 500\u00a0cemeteries had been built, with 400,000\u00a0headstones, a thousand Crosses of Sacrifice, and 400 Stones of Remembrance."}, {"context": " The Commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave, which amounted to 315,000 in France and Belgium alone. The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front. After resistance from the French committee responsible for the approvals of memorials on French territory, the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials, and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing cemeteries rather than as separate structures."}, {"context": " Reginald Blomfield's Menin Gate was the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed, and was unveiled on 24 July 1927. The Menin Gate (Menenpoort) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34,984 names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker's Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing. Other memorials followed: the Helles Memorial in Gallipoli designed by John James Burnet; the Thiepval Memorial on the Somme and the Arras Memorial designed by Edwin Lutyens; and the Basra Memorial in Iraq designed by Edward Prioleau Warren. The Dominions and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing: the Neuve-Chapelle Memorial for the forces of India, the Vimy Memorial by Canada, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial by Australia, the Delville Wood Memorial by South Africa and the Beaumont-Hamel Memorial by Newfoundland. The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the Thiepval Memorial in 1932, though the Vimy Memorial would not be finished until 1936, the Villers-Bretonneux Memorial until 1938 and stonemasons were still conducting work on the Menin Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940."}, {"context": " The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the Opththalmic Institute at Giza, Egypt\u2014complete with library, and bacteriology and pathology departments\u2014as its memorial to men of the Egyptian Labour Corps and Camel Transport Corps. Its erection was agreed with local political pressure. From the start of the Second World War in 1939, the Commission organised grave registration units and, planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War, earmarked land for use as cemeteries. When the war began turning in favour of the Allies, the Commission was able to begin restoring its First World War cemeteries and memorials. It also began the task of commemorating the 600,000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War. In 1949, the Commission completed Dieppe Canadian War Cemetery, the first of 559 new cemeteries and 36 new memorials. Eventually, the Commission erected over 350,000 new headstones, many from Hopton Wood stone. The wider scale of World War II, coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries, meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer. In Albania the graves of 52 of the 54 graves of British SOE personnel had been reburied in Tirana before Major McIntosh from the CWGC Florence base was expelled by the new regime. Three-quarters of the original graves had been in \"difficult\" or remote locations."}, {"context": " Following the war, the Commission implemented a five-year horticultural renovation programme which addressed neglect by 1950. Structural repairs, together with the backlog of maintenance tasks from before the war, took a further ten years to complete. With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the World War I, Winston Churchill agreed to Ware's proposal that the Commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths. A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission's charter on 7 February 1941, empowering the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War, which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour. The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67,000\u00a0civilians. The Commission and the Dean of Westminster reached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed in Westminster Abbey but not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended. The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956; it added the final volume to the showcase in 1958."}, {"context": " Following World War II the Commission recognised that the word 'Imperial' within its name was no longer appropriate. In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organization changed its name to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960. More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the Commission to care for cemeteries in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether. Zehrensdorf Indian Cemetery in Germany was unkempt after the end of World War II and until the German reunification because it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005. The Six-Day War and War of Attrition resulted in the destruction of Port Tewfik Memorial and Aden Memorial, and the death of a Commission gardener at Suez War Memorial Cemetery. During the Lebanese Civil War two cemeteries in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt. The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult since Iran\u2013Iraq War in the 1980s, with regular maintenance being impractical since after the Gulf War."}, {"context": " The Commission has, and continues to, also provide support for war graves outside its traditional mandate. In 1982, the British Ministry of Defence requested the Commission's assistance to design and construct cemeteries in the Falkland Islands for those killed during the Falklands War. Although these cemeteries are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries, the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities for them. Since 2005, the Commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for cemeteries and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during the Second Boer War. In 2003, Veterans Affairs Canada employed the Commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility. As of 2011, the Commission conducts a twelve-year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans' markers installed at the expense of the Government of Canada."}, {"context": " In 2008, an exploratory excavation discovered mass graves on the edge of Pheasant Wood outside of Fromelles. Two-hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructed Fromelles (Pheasant Wood) Military Cemetery. This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years, the last such cemeteries having been built after the Second World War. The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7\u00a0million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153\u00a0countries and approximately 67,000\u00a0civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II. Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. As a result, the Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200\u00a0memorials worldwide. The vast majority of burial sites are pre-existing communal or municipal cemeteries and parish churchyards located in the United Kingdom, however the Commission has itself constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries worldwide. The Commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave; the largest of these is the Thiepval Memorial."}, {"context": " The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years, while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service. Death in service included not only those killed in combat but other causes such as those that died in training accidents, air raids and due to disease such as the 1918 flu pandemic. The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War. The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war, while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period after VE Day as the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice."}, {"context": " Civilians who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service. They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George's Chapel in Westminster Abbey. In addition to its mandated duties, the Commission maintains, under arrangement with applicable governments, over 40,000 non-Commonwealth war graves and over 25,000 non-war military and civilian graves. As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium (Baker, Blomfield and Lutyens), there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well. Sir Robert Lorimer was Principal Architect for Italy, Macedonia and Egypt, while Sir John James Burnet was Principal Architect for Palestine and Gallipoli, assisted by Thomas Smith Tait. The Principal Architect for Mesopotamia was Edward Prioleau Warren."}, {"context": " As well as these senior architects, there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs. These architects were younger, and many of them had served in the war. The Assistant Architects were: George Esselmont Gordon Leith, Wilfred Clement Von Berg, Charles Henry Holden (who in 1920 became a Principal Architect), William Harrison Cowlishaw, William Bryce Binnie, George Hartley Goldsmith, Frank Higginson, Arthur James Scott Hutton, Noel Ackroyd Rew, and John Reginald Truelove. Other architects that worked for the Commission, or won competitions for the Commission memorials, included George Salway Nicol, Harold Chalton Bradshaw, Verner Owen Rees, Gordon H. Holt, and Henry Philip Cart de Lafontaine."}, {"context": " In January 1944, Edward Maufe was appointed Principal Architect for the UK. Maufe worked extensively for the Commission for 25 years until 1969, becoming Chief Architect and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic Advisor. Together with Maufe, the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were Hubert Worthington, Louis de Soissons, Philip Hepworth and Colin St Clair Oakes. Leading sculptors that worked on the memorials and cemeteries after the First World War included Eric Henri Kennington, Charles Thomas Wheeler, Gilbert Ledward, and Charles Sargeant Jagger. Other sculptors, both in the inter-war period and after the Second World War, included William Reid Dick, Ernest Gillick, Basil Gotto, Alfred Turner, Laurence A. Turner, Walter Gilbert, Henry Poole, Vernon Hill, Robert Anning Bell, Ferdinand Victor Blundstone, Joseph Armitage, and Gilbert Bayes."}, {"context": " Structural design has always played an important part in the Commission's cemeteries. Apart from a few exceptions, due to local geological conditions, the cemeteries follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world. This makes the cemeteries easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries. A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought-iron gate entrance. For cemeteries in France and Belgium, a land tablet near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments. All but the smallest cemeteries contain a register with an inventory of the burials, a plan of the plots and rows, and a basic history of the cemetery. The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery. More recently, in larger sites, a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign. The headstones within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size."}, {"context": " The cemetery grounds are, except in drier climates, grass covered with a floral border around the headstones. There is also an absence of any paving between the headstone rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace. However, Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and sanitises the nature of the war deaths. Typically, cemeteries of more than 40 graves contain a Cross of Sacrifice designed by architect Reginald Blomfield. This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in churchyards in England with proportions more commonly seen in the Celtic cross. The cross is normally a freestanding four-point limestone Latin cross, mounted on an octagonal base, and ranging in height from . A bronze longsword, blade down, is embedded on the face of the cross. This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery, intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self-sacrifice."}, {"context": " Cemeteries with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance, designed by Edwin Lutyens with the inscription \"\"Their Name Liveth for Evermore\"\". The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by Rudyard Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively. In contrast to the Cross of Sacrifice, the design for the stone deliberately avoided \"shapes associated with particular religions\". The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the Parthenon. Each stone is long and high. The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar. The feature was designed using the principle of entasis. The subtle curves in the design, if extended, would form a sphere in diameter."}, {"context": " Every grave is marked with a headstone. Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives. The headstones use a standard upper case lettering designed by MacDonald Gill. Individual graves are arranged, where possible, in straight rows and marked by uniform headstones, the vast majority of which are made of Portland stone. The original headstone dimensions were tall, wide, and thick."}, {"context": " Most headstones are inscribed with a cross, except for those deceased known to be atheist or non-Christian. In the case of burials of Victoria Cross or George Cross recipients, the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem. Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because he was too young to serve or were sought by law enforcement; in such cases his primary name is shown along with the notation \"\"served as\"\". Many headstones are for unidentified casualties; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body. The epitaph, developed by Rudyard Kipling, that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is \"A Soldier of the Great War known unto God\". Some headstones bear the text \"believed to be buried in this cemetery\" when they are believed to be buried in the cemetery but the exact location of the grave is not known. In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one headstone covers more than one grave. The headstone does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date, and even then only if it is known, and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death."}, {"context": " Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the Commission to deviate from its standard design. In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes, such as Thailand and Turkey, stone-faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal headstones. These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into sodden ground. In Italy, headstones were carved from Chiampo Perla limestone because it was in more plentiful supply. In Struma Military Cemetery, in Greece, to avoid risk of earthquake damage, small headstones are laid flush to the ground. Due to their smaller size, the markers often lack unit insignia."}, {"context": " Commission cemeteries are distinctive in treating floriculture as an integral part of the cemetery design. Originally, the horticultural concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting, in contrast to traditionally bleak graveyards. Recommendations given by Arthur William Hill, the Assistant Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew enabled the Commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life. Combining structural and horticultural elements was not unfamiliar to the Commission's architects. Sir Edwin Lutyens furthered his long-standing working relationship with horticulturist Gertrude Jekyll, whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and roses greatly influenced the appearance of the cemeteries. Where possible, indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home."}, {"context": " Variety in texture, height and timing of floral display were equally important horticultural considerations. The beds around each headstone are planted with a mixture of floribunda roses and herbaceous perennials. Low-growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of headstones, ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from splashing back during rain. In cemeteries where there are pedestal grave markers, dwarf varieties of plants are used instead. The absence of any form of paving between the headstone rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs. Lawn paths add to the garden ambiance, and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain. Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical, dry landscaping is an ecological alternative favoured by the Commission's horticulturists, as is the case in Iraq. Drier areas require a different approach not only for lawns, but also to plants and styles of planting. Similarly, there are separate horticultural considerations in tropical climates. When many cemeteries are concentrated within a limited area, like along the Western Front or Gallipoli peninsula, mobile teams of gardeners operate from a local base. Elsewhere, larger cemeteries have their own dedicated staff while small cemeteries are usually tended by a single gardener working part-time."}, {"context": " The affairs of the CWGC are overseen by a Board of Commissioners. The president of the board is HRH Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the chairman is the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for Defence Gavin Williamson and the vice-chairman is Vice-Admiral Sir Tim Laurence. The members are: the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom, Lieutenant-General Sir Jerry Mateparae, the High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom, George Brandis, the High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom, Nomatemba Tambo, the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom, Yashvardhan Kumar Sinha, the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom, Janice Charette, Sir Hew Strachan, Keith Simpson, Kevan Jones, Edward Chaplin, Robert Fox, Ros Kelly, Air Marshall David Walker and Lieutenant General Sir Bill Rollo. Victoria Wallace is the Director-General of the CWGC and serves as secretary to the Board."}, {"context": " The CWGC is headquartered in Maidenhead, England. Offices or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation. They are: The CWGC's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states. In the fiscal year 2012/13, these grants amounted to \u00a358.6 million of the organisation's \u00a366.5 million of income. This equates to an approximate cost of per commemorated war dead. The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the CWGC maintains on behalf of that country. The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and India ."}, {"context": " A project is under way to photograph the graves of and memorials to all service personnel from 1914 to the present day, and to make the images available to the public. The work is being carried out by The War Graves Photographic Project in conjunction with the CWGC. As of August 2013, the project has recorded 1.7\u00a0million photographs for posterity. Immediately following the First World War, the British Army remained responsible for the exhumation of remains. The Western Front was divided into sectors and combed for bodies by 12-man exhumation units. Between the Armistice and September 1921, the exhumation units reburied 204,695 bodies. After 1921, no further comprehensive search for bodies was undertaken, and in February 1921 responsibility for the cemeteries was transferred to the Commission. Nevertheless, despite the rigour of the searches, bodies continued to be discovered in large numbers. In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38,000\u00a0bodies were discovered. In the mid 1920s, 20 to 30\u00a0bodies were being discovered weekly."}, {"context": " The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence, with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually. For example, in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF were discovered in a backyard in Hallu, France. In April 2013, the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with a metal detector in 2009 were re-interred at H.A.C. Cemetery near Arras, France. In March 2014, the remains of 20\u00a0Commonwealth and 30\u00a0German soldiers were discovered in Vendin-le-Vieil, France, with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at Loos British Cemetery. When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the Commission is notified, and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artifacts that may help identify the individual. The details are then registered and archived at the Commission's headquarters. Evidence used for identification purposes may include artifacts found with the remains, anthropological data and DNA."}, {"context": " Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically results in the identification of previously buried casualties. The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research. In December 2013, it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick Cormack, who was previously commemorated on the Arras Flying Services Memorial, had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in Machelen, East-Flanders in Belgium. Sergeant Leonard Maidment was identified in 2013 after a visitor to Marfaux British Cemetery discovered a headstone of an unknown sergeant with the Hampshire Regiment killed on 20 July 1918, and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date. The In From The Cold Project has so far identified 6,000 individuals with either unmarked graves or names missing from the Roll of Honour maintained at Westminster Abbey. The majority of the casualties commemorated on the Brookwood 1914\u20131918 Memorial are servicemen and women identified by the In From The Cold Project as having died while in care of their families and were not commemorated by the Commission at the time."}, {"context": " Cemeteries, including those of war dead, are targets for vandalism. The gravestones, cemeteries and buildings of the Commission are no exception. The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the work of young people, noting the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays. Metal theft is also a problem: determined thieves target the bronze swords from the Cross of Sacrifice, which are now replaced with replicas made of fibreglass. The vandalism of Commission cemeteries has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts. In the 1970s, during the Troubles, Commission cemeteries in Ireland experienced vandalism. Vandals defaced the central memorial of the \u00c9taples Military Cemetery in northern France with anti-British and anti-American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the Iraq War. On 9 May 2004, thirty-three headstones were demolished in the Gaza cemetery, which contains 3,691\u00a0graves, allegedly in retaliation for the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse scandal. On 24 February 2012, during the Libyan Civil War, an Islamist militia damaged over 200 headstones in the Benghazi war cemetery, as well as the central memorial."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Water Polo Championships", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Water Polo Championships are held in conjunction with the Commonwealth Games, although they are no longer included in the Commonwealth Games programme. They are in a round robin format. It is implied that the next Games will be held in conjunction with the 2018 Commonwealth Games in the Gold Coast, Australia. Although recognised as a Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) sport, water polo has only featured in the Games once at the 1950 British Empire Games in Auckland, New Zealand. Only Australia and New Zealand took part, where Australia won all three matches: 11-4, 13-2, 5-2. Water polo is acknowledged by the CGF as a sport for potential inclusion in future Games with further development in Commonwealth countries."}, {"context": " The first Commonwealth Water Polo Championships were held in March 2002 at Manchester Aquatics Centre in Manchester, England. Five teams entered in the women's championships, and nine in the men's. The championships were held prior to the July/August 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester. Commonwealth Water Polo Championships Placings - Women: Commonwealth Water Polo Championships Placings - Men: The second Commonwealth Water Polo Championships were held in January 2006 at Challenge Stadium in Perth, Australia. The championships were held two months prior to the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne."}, {"context": " Commonwealth Water Polo Championships Placings - Women: Commonwealth Water Polo Championships Placings - Men: The third Commonwealth Champions were played from April 5\u201312, 2014 after an 8-year gap, where no competition was held in conjunction to the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India. The location was Aberdeen, Scotland at the newly-built Aberdeen Aquatics Centre. The Championships were held prior to the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. Seven teams competed in the men's competition, and six in the women's.  Commonwealth Water Polo Placings - Women: Commonwealth Water Polo Placings - Men:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Winter Games", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Winter Games was a multi-sport event comprising winter sports, last held in 1966. Three editions of the Games have been staged. The Winter Games were designed as a counterbalance to the Commonwealth Games, which focuses on summer sports, to accompany the Winter Olympics and Summer Olympic Games. The winter Games were founded by T.D. Richardson. The 1958 Commonwealth Winter Games were held in St. Moritz, Switzerland. This was the inaugural games for the winter edition. The 1962 Games were also held in St. Moritz, complementing the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, Australia, and the 1966 event was held in St. Moritz as well, following which the idea was discontinued.  A Winter Games was proposed for 2010 in India, complementing the 2010 Commonwealth Games in New Delhi. The proposed venue was Gulmarg in Jammu and Kashmir, where the Indian National Winter Games had previously been held, but the idea did not come to fruition."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Works Site", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Works Site is an historic industrial archaeological site in Norwich, Connecticut. Located near the Yantic Falls on the Yantic River, it was the site of a major industrial facility developed in the mid-19th century, with an industrial history dating back to the 18th century. Charles Augustus Converse had consolidated water rights at the falls, and built a large complex which housed a number of different water-powered enterprises, including the gun factory of Ethan Allen, a gristmill, sawmill, woolen mill, nail factory, and a cork-cutting factory.  The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1998."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Wrestling Championship", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Wrestling Championship is a tournament designed for top wrestlers in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is not linked to Commonwealth games, nor has any accreditation with any sports body in any country. The first Commonwealth Wrestling Championship was held in Glasgow, Scotland The 9th Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in London, Ontario, Canada. The 10th Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in Cape Town, South Africa from June 30 to July 2, 2005 120KG-Greco-Roma"}, {"context": " 1st Gold Markus Dekker 2nd Silver Palwinder Singh Cheema 3rd Bronze Yuri Reichel 4th Karl Gehringer The 11th Commonwealth Wrestling Championships were held in London, Ontario, Canada on June 16\u201317, 2007. Participating nations included Canada, India, Pakistan, Great Britain, South Africa, and Namibia. The 12th commonwealth wrestling championships were held in Jalandhar, Punjab, India between December 18 and December 20, 2009. Originally it was slated to be a test event for the Delhi 2010 commonwealth games in Delhi but the venue was not ready. Wrestlers competed in Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling the latter being only for Men.  The 13th commonwealth wrestling championships were held in Johannesburg, South Africa between December 15 and December 17, 2017. It was streamed live by DigiComms from Carnival City in Brakpan."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Writers", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth Writers (established in 2011) is the cultural initiative of the Commonwealth Foundation. It aims to inspire, develop and connect writers across the Commonwealth. Its flagship is a literary award for short stories, the Commonwealth Short Story Prize, and a website. As the Commonwealth Foundation\u2019s cultural programme, Commonwealth Writers works in partnership with international literary organisations, the wider cultural industries and civil society to help writers develop their craft. Partners include the BBC World Service, the British Council, English PEN, \"Granta\", Hay Festival, the Prince Claus Fund, the Sigrid Rausing Trust, the Brunel University African Poetry Prize, and others."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Short Story Prize is awarded annually for the best piece of unpublished short fiction (2,000\u20135,000 words). Regional winners receive \u00a32,500 and the overall winner receives \u00a35,000. The prize is open to Commonwealth citizens aged 18 or over. The Prize is open to writers who have had little or no work published and particularly aimed at those places with little or no publishing industry. The prize aims to bring writing from these countries to the attention of an international audience. The stories need to be in English, but can be translated from other languages."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth XI cricket team played over 100 first-class cricket matches from 1949 to 1968. The team started out as a side made up of mostly English, Australian and West Indian cricketers, that toured the subcontinent but later on played first-class fixtures in England. They also toured South Africa and Rhodesia. The Commonwealth team, captained by Jock Livingston, played 17 first-class matches in India and two each in Ceylon and Pakistan. Les Ames, another Englishman, led the team on this occasion and they appeared in 25 first-class matches in India as well as two in Ceylon."}, {"context": " Australian Ben Barnett captained the Commonwealth XI on this tour of India which consisted of 22 first-class matches. Peter Richardson's Commonwealth team played just one first-class match in India, against the Bengal Chief Minister's XI, but toured Pakistan for 14 first-class matches. A Commonwealth side toured Pakistan under the captaincy of Richie Benaud. Roger Prideaux and Tony Lewis captained the team in some matches. In October 1959, the Commonwealth XI played three first-class matches in South Africa and in a tour of Rhodesia in September, 1962, they played a further two.  All other matches played by the Commonwealth team were in England and mostly against a side called the England XI. The only exceptions were matches against the touring Indians in 1952 and Essex in 1953."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team in India and Ceylon in 1950\u201351", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth XI cricket team toured India and Ceylon from 1 October 1950 to 6 March 1951 and played 27 first-class matches including five unofficial \"test matches\" against an All-India XI and one against an All-Ceylon XI. The team was nominally captained by Les Ames but he had injury problems and often had to hand over to his deputy Frank Worrell. The team was judged to be stronger than the England team which was concurrently (and disastrously) touring Australia. There were numerous problems with health and injury issues which caused early withdrawals but it included Jim Laker, Sonny Ramadhin, Derek Shackleton, Jack Ikin, Harold Gimblett, Fred Ridgway, Dick Spooner, George Tribe, Les Jackson, Bruce Dooland, George Emmett, Laurie Fishlock, Harold Stephenson, Ken Grieves, Ray Dovey and Billy Sutcliffe."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth XI were unbeaten on the tour. They won the second match against India at Bombay's Brabourne Stadium by ten wickets. This was the only one of the unofficial \"tests\" in which Jim Laker could take part (he went home soon after this match for health reasons) and he took eight wickets in the match. The Commonwealth XI won the fifth match against India by 77 runs thanks to Worrell, who scored 116 and 71 not out, and Ramadhin, who took nine wickets in the match. The other three matches against India were drawn as was the international in Colombo against Ceylon. Worrell played a magnificent innings of 285 but Ceylon managed to hold on for a draw with their last pair together when time ran out. Ramadhin took eight wickets in the match."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team in India in 1953\u201354", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth XI cricket team toured India in the 1953-54 season and played 21 first-class matches including five against an All-India XI. In India the team was known as the Silver Jubilee Overseas Cricket Team, or SJOC, as the tour was arranged to mark the 25th anniversary of the Board of Control for Cricket in India. Captained by Ben Barnett, who also kept wicket, the team had several well-known players including Frank Worrell, Sonny Ramadhin, Roy Marshall, Peter Loader and Reg Simpson. The series was won by India, 2-1."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team in India in 1964\u201365", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth XI cricket team visited India in November to December 1964 and played one first-class match over four days against the Bengal Chief Minister's XI at Eden Gardens in Calcutta, winning by 1 wicket. Captained by Peter Richardson, the Commonwealth team consisted of 12 players and was very strong, as it featured the great Gary Sobers and such well-known players as Brian Close, Lance Gibbs, Mushtaq Mohammed, Basil Butcher, Keith Andrew, Colin Cowdrey, Barry Knight, Len Coldwell, Cammie Smith and John Mortimore. Coldwell did not play in the first-class match.  The Bengal Chief Minister's XI was virtually an Indian Test side, and included Mansur Ali Khan Pataudi, Hanumant Singh, Chandu Borde and Bhagwat Chandrasekhar. The Commonwealth team also played a 12-a-side three-day match at Eden Gardens against the President's XII. This match was not first-class."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team in India, Pakistan and Ceylon in 1949\u201350", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth XI cricket team toured Ceylon, India and Pakistan from October 1949 to March 1950 and played 21 first-class matches, including five against an All-India XI. Captained by Jock Livingston, who also kept wicket in some games, the team had several well-known players including Frank Worrell, George Tribe, Bill Alley, Cec Pepper, George Dawkes and George Pope. Most of the players were professionals in the Lancashire League or the Central Lancashire League. About half the team were Australians, two were West Indians, and the rest were English.  The first-class matches are numbered."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth XI cricket team in South Africa in 1959\u201360", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth XI cricket team toured South Africa in October and November 1959, playing three first-class matches. Captained by Denis Compton, the Commonwealth XI included several well-known players such as Tom Graveney, Brian Close, Bert Sutcliffe, Frank Tyson, Godfrey Evans, Roy Marshall, Bob Simpson and Ian Craig. The first match was against Transvaal at the New Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg and this was drawn after Jonathan Fellows-Smith scored a century in each innings for Transvaal. Next, the Commonwealth XI defeated a Combined Transvaal XI by 3 wickets at the Loftus Versfeld Stadium in Pretoria. In the third and final first-class game, the Commonwealth XI played a South African Invitation XI at the New Wanderers and saved a draw after having to follow-on."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Youth Games", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Youth Games (CYG) is an international multi-sport event organized by the Commonwealth Games Federation. The games are held every four years with the current Commonwealth Games format. The first version was held in Edinburgh, Scotland from 10 to 14 August 2000. The age limitation of the athletes is 14 to 18. The Commonwealth Games Federation discussed the idea of a Millennium Commonwealth Youth Games in 1997. In 1998 the concept was agreed on for the purpose of providing a Commonwealth multi-sport event for young people born in the calendar year 1986 or later."}, {"context": " The first edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games were held in Edinburgh, Scotland from 10\u201314 August 2000. 15 countries contested 483 medals over 3 days of competition in 8 sports. A total of 773 athletes, 280 Technical Officials and around 500 volunteers participated in the event. Eight sports were contested. These included: Athletics, Fencing, Gymnastics, Hockey, Lawn Tennis, Squash, Swimming and Weightlifting. The second edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Bendigo, Australia from 30 November to 4 December 2004, 22 countries participated and contested in 10 sports events spread over a period of 3 days, which included Athletics, Badminton, Boxing, Lawn Bowls, Rugby 7\u2019s, Tenpin Bowling, Swimming, Cycling, Gymnastics and Weightlifting.980 athletes and team officials were involved in the Games in Bendigo."}, {"context": " The third edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Pune, India from the 12 to 18 October 2008. Over 1,220 athletes and 350 officials from 71 countries participated in these games, in 9 disciplines -Athletics, Badminton, Boxing, Shooting, Swimming, Table Tennis, Tennis, Weightlifting and Wrestling. The fourth edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Isle of Man from 7\u201313 September 2011. 811 athletes from 64 commonwealth nations competed at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games."}, {"context": " The fifth edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Apia, the capital of Samoa. Samoa were the only bidders for the Games. Around 807 athletes from 65 nations and territories participated in the nine sports: aquatics, archery, athletics, boxing, lawn bowls, rugby sevens, squash, tennis and weightlifting. The sixth edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games was held in Nassau, Bahamas. The games were held from 18 to 23 July 2017. The sports contested at the Bahamas 2017 were Athletics, Swimming, Beach Soccer, Boxing, Cycling (Road), Judo, Rugby Sevens, Tennis and Beach Volleyball. It was the first time Judo, Beach Soccer and Beach Volleyball have been presented at a Commonwealth Youth Games.  An all-time Commonwealth Youth Games from 2000 Commonwealth Youth Games to 2017 Commonwealth Youth Games, is tabulated below. The table is simply the consequence of the sum of the medal tables of the various editions of the Commonwealth Youth Games."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Youth Parliament", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Youth Parliament is an annual gathering hosted by the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (CPA). It brings together young people aged 18\u201329 from across the Commonwealth of Nations to discuss issues of democracy and governance. Each member parliament of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association has the opportunity to nominate up to two delegates to attend the Commonwealth Youth Parliament. The Commonwealth Youth Parliament rotates annually through the nine regions of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. The 7th Commonwealth Youth Parliament was held in 2015 in Darwin, Australia hosted by the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. The 8th Commonwealth Youth Parliament was held in British Columbia, Canada in 2016. The 9th Commonwealth Youth Parliament was hosted by the States of Jersey in 2018."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth Youth Programme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth Youth Programme, also known as CYP, is an international development agency working with young people between the ages of 15 and 29. Part of the Commonwealth Secretariat, CYP is active in the Commonwealth's 54 member countries. CYP has a head office in London with four centres in Africa, Lusaka, Zambia, Asia Chandigarh, India, Caribbean Georgetown, Guyana and Pacific Honiara, Solomon Islands. Currently there are Four Regional Directors and 16 programme officers plus support staff are working there."}, {"context": " The CYP's programme of work is decided mainly by Commonwealth Youth Ministers Meeting. Funded by Commonwealth governments through annual pledges to a voluntary fund, CYP is not a funding agency and does not provide financial support to any other organization. CYP supports, and is supported by, a body of youth representatives called the Commonwealth Youth Caucus. The Youth Caucus meets at national, regional and pan-Commonwealth level to advise the programme. The Youth Caucus has a seat at Commonwealth Youth Ministers Meeting, and helps to organise the Commonwealth Youth Forum which meets prior to Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting."}, {"context": " The Programme is supported by Queen Elizabeth II in her role as head of the Commonwealth. Princess Anne visited the Commonwealth Youth Programme Regional Centre for Africa in Lusaka, Zambia, in September 2012 as part of her four-day official visit to the country to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. CYP provides government and youth-centred organisations with technical assistance in the areas of: All of CYP's work falls within The Plan of Action for Youth Empowerment (2007-2015), which is the Commonwealth's organising framework for cooperation on youth affairs. Through the Plan of Action, Commonwealth Heads of Government have affirmed that: \"empowering young people means creating and supporting the enabling conditions under which young people can act on their own behalf, and on their own terms, rather than at the direction of others.\""}, {"context": " CYP's mission statement states that \"CYP works to engage and empower young people (aged 15-29) to enhance their contribution to development. We do this in partnership with young people, governments and other key stakeholders. Our mission is grounded within a rights-based approach, guided by the realities facing young people in the Commonwealth, and anchored in the belief that young people are: CYP advocates the effective participation of young women and men in the development process and for social transformation. We value their full engagement at all levels of decision-making.\"  The Commonwealth Youth Programme works in partnership with a range of organisations including"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth and Protectorate", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth and Protectorate (1649-1660) refers to the republican governments of England, Scotland and Ireland during the Interregnum between the reigns of the Stuart King Charles I (1625-1649) and his son King Charles II (1660-1685). See and England Great Britain, Ireland and the colonies Scotland Ireland United Kingdom: Flags \"(and arms)\" of the Interregnum, 1649-1660, Flags of the World web site, retrieved 13 May 2013"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions also British Empire Paper Currency Issuers comprises a list of public, private, state-owned banks and other government bodies and Currency Boards who issued legal tender: banknotes."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth citizen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " In general, a Commonwealth citizen is a citizen of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. This designation is given legal effect in the nationality laws of some Commonwealth countries, and Commonwealth citizens may enjoy some privileges in the United Kingdom and, less commonly, other member states. Each Commonwealth country determines what special rights, if any, are accorded to citizens of other Commonwealth countries. The status is most significant in British law and has little effect in many other Commonwealth countries, such as Australia."}, {"context": " In British nationality law, a Commonwealth citizen is a person who is either a British citizen, Indian citizen, British Overseas citizen, British subject, British National (Overseas) or a national of a country listed in Schedule 3 of the British Nationality Act 1981 (see below). Under the law, British protected persons are not Commonwealth citizens. The list of countries in Schedule 3 at any time may not accurately reflect the countries actually within the Commonwealth at that time. For example, when Fiji left the Commonwealth in 1987 and 1990, its name was not removed from Schedule 3. This may have happened because the British Government at the time wished to avoid the consequences of Fijian citizens in the United Kingdom suddenly losing the benefits of Commonwealth citizenship."}, {"context": " In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth citizens (together with Irish citizens and British protected persons) are in law considered not to be \"foreign\" or \"aliens\", although British protected persons do not have all the civic rights that are enjoyed by Commonwealth and Irish citizens. This reasoning has not carried over to some other Commonwealth countries \u2013 for example, in the High Court of Australia case of \"Sue v Hill\", other Commonwealth countries were held to be foreign powers, while in \"Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs\", the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be 'aliens'. In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth and Irish citizens enjoy the same civic rights as British citizens, namely:"}, {"context": " The disabilities of Commonwealth citizens who are not British citizens are few but, in the case of immigration control, very important. Commonwealth citizens (including British nationals who are not British citizens) who do not have the right of abode are subject to immigration control, including control on the right to work and carry out business. In addition, Commonwealth citizens who are not British citizens may not be engaged in certain sensitive occupations, e.g., in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, in the intelligence services, and some positions within the armed forces."}, {"context": " Nevertheless, under the United Kingdom's immigration arrangements Commonwealth citizens enjoy certain advantages: Countries whose citizens are Commonwealth citizens under Schedule 3 of the British Nationality Act 1981, although the list may not reflect the actual current membership in the Commonwealth, are as follows: <br> For electoral purposes, the whole of Cyprus is considered to be a Commonwealth country; hence, anyone who holds a Cypriot passport or a Northern Cypriot passport is considered to be a Commonwealth citizen (but not a person who is solely a Turkish citizen without any form of Cypriot nationality)."}, {"context": " The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013 and was removed from the schedule on 12 November 2015 by virtue of The British Nationality (The Gambia) Order 2015. The new Gambian government elected in 2017 has stated that it will apply to re-join. The Gambia rejoined the Commonwealth on 8 February 2018, after the Commonwealth Secretariat confirmed their application had been approved unanimously by Commonwealth Member States. It was then added back to the schedule on 22 June 2018. Maldives left the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016 and was removed from the schedule on 12 May 2017 by virtue of The British Nationality (Maldives) Order 2017."}, {"context": " Although the rights and privileges (if any) for non-national Commonwealth citizens differ from country to country, a number of Commonwealth countries grant them more privileges than 'aliens' (i.e. non-Commonwealth foreign nationals), but not the full privileges enjoyed by the country's own nationals. The following Commonwealth countries allow citizens from other Commonwealth countries to vote: All British Crown Dependencies allow citizens from Commonwealth countries to vote: The following Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom allow citizens from Commonwealth countries to vote:"}, {"context": " Some Commonwealth countries offer visa-free entry for short visits made by Commonwealth citizens. Some Commonwealth countries continue to allow Commonwealth citizens from other countries to become nationals/local citizens by \"registration\" rather than \"naturalisation\", upon preferential terms, e.g. with a shorter required period of residency, although this practice has been discontinued in some countries such as New Zealand and Malta. In March 2013, it was announced by Nigeria's Foreign Affairs Minister, Ambassador Olugbenga Ashiru, that a visa free regime is being contemplated by Commonwealth countries for its members to strengthen trade and investment among member nations. As a prelude to accomplishing this, the council of ministers is to present a proposal for the exemption of holders of official and diplomatic passports from visa requirements at the next Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, CHOGOM, scheduled to hold in Colombo, Sri Lanka."}, {"context": " The announcement came in the wake of a meeting between Ashiru and the Secretary General of the Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, in Abuja. At the meeting Ashiru and Sharma discussed proposals to make the Commonwealth more relevant to its citizens across the globe including ways the Commonwealth could ease free movement across member countries, strengthen institutions, enhance education, create job opportunities, facilitate development and enhance the living standard of the citizens across the countries of the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " Ashiru said, \"We also discussed the issue of free movement to promote people to people contact within the Commonwealth. In the past, it used to be that holders of Commonwealth passports could travel within the Commonwealth countries easily without having to go and queue for visas. We are now thinking for ways to ensure that we bring back this old tradition of the Commonwealth. Already, the council of ministers have recommended for approval at the next CHOGOM meeting in Colombo the exemption of holders of official and diplomatic passports within the Commonwealth from the requirement of a visa if they are travelling within the Commonwealth.\""}, {"context": " When approved, he said, other categories of professionals and businessmen would be recommended for similar privileges. In foreign (i.e. non-Commonwealth) countries, the British embassy or consulate is traditionally responsible for Commonwealth citizens whose governments are not represented in the country concerned. A few Commonwealth governments have made alternative arrangements to share the burden, such as the Canada-Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement, hence for Canadian and Australian citizens, the British embassy or consulate only provides assistance if neither country is represented. In return, there are a few Australian consulates that are responsible for British nationals because there is no British consulate there. Some Commonwealth governments, such as Singapore and Tanzania, have opted not to receive consular assistance from the United Kingdom."}, {"context": " In other Commonwealth countries, British High Commissions accept no responsibility for unrepresented Commonwealth citizens, who should look to the host Commonwealth government for quasi-consular assistance. Canadian and Australian citizens are still able to seek consular assistance from each other's high commissions. Additionally, Canadian citizens can seek consular assistance at any British embassy or high commission where Canada is not represented. Commonwealth citizens outside the UK are eligible to apply for a British emergency travel document if they need to travel urgently and their passport has been lost/stolen/expired (as long as the FCO has cleared this with the government of the Commonwealth citizen's home country)."}, {"context": " When a British embassy or consulate in a foreign country is required to provide a replacement passport to a Commonwealth citizen whose government is unrepresented in that country, it will issue a British passport with the nationality of the holder marked as \"Commonwealth citizen\". Some Commonwealth governments issue travel documents to Commonwealth citizens resident in their countries who are unable to obtain national passports. For example, the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade issues Documents of Identity (DOI) for compassionate reasons to Commonwealth citizens resident in Australia who are unable to obtain a valid travel document for the country or countries of which he/she has nationality when he/she needs to travel urgently."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth countries league", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The \"Commonwealth Countries League\" (CCL) is a voluntary pan-Commonwealth civil society organisation. The objectives are to secure equality of liberties, status and opportunities between men and women and to promote mutual understanding throughout the Commonwealth. The CCL is non-party and is open to men and women from all countries. It promotes the education of girls and young women and links together women\u2019s organizations throughout the Commonwealth. In particular it raises money for its associated charity, the Commonwealth Countries League Education Fund."}, {"context": " The CCL grew from the British Commonwealth League. The BCL was conceived as an idea in 1923 by a group of women who had been involved in the suffrage movement. A group of Australian women had come to London to march in the suffrage parades in support of the British suffragettes, their main aim being to support women of any ethnicity, in other Dominions and colonies to get the vote. Women also came from India, the Caribbean, South Africa and other countries. The BCL was established to \u201cpromote equality of liberties, status and opportunities between women and men, and to encourage mutual understanding throughout the Commonwealth\u201d. This was formally instituted as the CCL in 1925."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Countries League works for rights and interests of women in the Commonwealth by providing a platform: The League's vision is, through the Commonwealth Countries League Education Fund, to change Commonwealth lives through education and friendship and to educate and empower young women as agents of change in their own communities. The CCLEF identifies and sponsors girls of ability through secondary school where, without assistance, they would be unable or unlikely to continue; to give them a sense of their own value and worth and to enable them to act as ambassadors for female education within their own communities."}, {"context": " The CCL is run by an Executive Committee elected annually by and from the membership. In addition representatives from affiliated organisations can attend the Executive meetings on a non-voting basis. A President is appointed at the AGM every three years. The CCL holds seminars and conferences relating to the girl child, women\u2019s role in development and human rights. It continues its work with civil societies to further the exchange of information and Commonwealth friendship. It also organises the CCL Alumnae Association of former sponsored girls and members who have returned to their home countries. The CCL Next Generation is a parallel group of young volunteers who are helping to fundraise and support the work of the CCL."}, {"context": " Membership of the League is open to all with an interest in the aims. There are currently around 500 members, including most of the London-based High Commissioners or their spouses and a broad range of educators and supporters. The philosophy behind the CCL\u2019s work is that educated girls with a highly developed sense of responsibility are more likely to provide a better future for themselves as well as for their communities. The primary recipient of funds from CCL activities is the Commonwealth Countries League Education Fund (CCLEF). Sponsorship has enabled our girls to enter many professions. The scheme enables girls, who have academic potential but whose parents or guardians cannot support them financially, to continue their secondary education in their own Commonwealth country. Even where secondary education is free help may be needed with providing school uniform or writing materials, transport costs, tuition and examination fees and incidental expenses."}, {"context": " During 2012/13 sponsorship rose from 364 to 397 and over 90 girls completed their secondary education. Some will go on to university, others to training colleges: all should now have the ability to take greater control of their lives, have increased knowledge, greater earning capacity and the opportunity to overcome poverty. The league holds a number of fundraising events through the year, including afternoon teas, lunches and dinners - often hosted by a High Commission, and fashion shows such as the Splendours of the Commonwealth in September 2013. The major event of the year is the Commonwealth Fair in November."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth free trade", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth free trade is the process or proposal of removing barriers of trade between member states of the Commonwealth of Nations. The preferential trade regime within the British Empire continued in some form amongst Commonwealth nations under the Imperial Preference system, until that system was dismantled after World War II due to changes in geopolitics and the pattern of global trade, and the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community. The idea of promoting renewed inter-Commonwealth trade emerged in the late 20th century as a response to the evolution of the global economy. At one extreme, proposals have been raised for the creation of a multilateral free trade area comprising all member states of the Commonwealth of Nations."}, {"context": " Today, most Commonwealth countries are pursuing regional integration projects, including the European Union (3 members), Caribbean Community (12 members), Southern African Customs Union (5 members), East African Community (4 members), and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (4 members). However, at the 2005 Summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed Commonwealth members pursuing free trade amongst one another in order to assist the development of poorest members by allowing them duty-free and quota-free access to the markets of developing and developed countries. The heads of government also endorsed looking into ways the organisation can strengthen dialogue, networking, and collaboration on trade and economic issues between Commonwealth members."}, {"context": " The concept of a multilateral Commonwealth free trade area has recently become popularised in Britain among Eurosceptics who campaigned for withdrawal from the EU prior to the UK's EU membership referendum, which resulted in the decision to leave. Throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Britain exercised an informal trade system with her colonies and self-governing dominions. During the early 20th century, several political figures in Britain, led by Joseph Chamberlain, argued for a policy of Imperial Preference \u2013 both to promote unity within the British Empire, and to assure Britain's position as a world power. The policy was controversial as it pitted proponents of Imperial trade with those who sought a general policy of trade liberalisation with all nations."}, {"context": " The schism helped contribute to the defeat of Prime Minister Arthur Balfour and his Conservative-Unionist government in 1906, and had serious ramifications for Conservative prospects in the 1923 and 1929 general elections. One notable victory had been the establishment of the Empire Marketing Board in 1926, which encouraged Britons to 'Buy Empire'. In 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression, representatives of Britain, the Dominions, and the Colonies met in Ottawa, Canada to hold the Commonwealth Conference on Economic Consultation and Co-operation. There had been an initial agreement on Imperial Preference, but a comprehensive agreement failed to materialise. Many of the Dominion leaders attributed this to the attitude of the British Dominions Secretary J. H. Thomas during the negotiations."}, {"context": " In 1935, the Canadian Prime Minister, R. B. Bennett, a Conservative who endorsed Imperial Preference, was replaced by a Liberal, William Lyon Mackenzie King. King responded to pressure from U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull and abandoned Imperial Preference. In the case of the Commonwealth, the U.S. was hostile to it from its inception, notwithstanding the fact that in the cases of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, there was an overwhelming preference for a trade system based on the United Kingdom rather than the U.S."}, {"context": " The conclusion of World War II drastically affected the prospects for an agreement Commonwealth trade. The United States emerged as the foremost political and economic power, and its policy was to promote generalised free trade, primarily through the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Bretton Woods conference, held in New Hampshire in 1944, had also created a direct link between the value of gold and the US dollar, thereby establishing it as the world's reserve fiat currency. The war had also left Britain heavily indebted, economically weakened, and unable to absorb the flow of exports from Commonwealth jurisdictions. The Dominions, primarily Canada, directed their trade more heavily to the US market as a consequence."}, {"context": " The idea of enhanced trade between Canada and Britain was explored in the mid-1950s by the Conservative government of Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker. The plan, in response to the Canadian government's concern with over-reliance on the United States, was to adopt policies that would see up to 15 percent of Canada's US exports diverted to the UK. Representatives for both Diefenbaker and British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan held exploratory talks, but no agreement was ever reached. Britain's entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, and its evolution as a member state of the European Union (EU) has meant that for practical purposes, the United Kingdom cannot independently enter into negotiations with Commonwealth states to establish a free trade agreement. Instead, the EU, as a representative of all its members, negotiates collectively. However, after the decision on 23 June 2016 by Britain to leave the EU and as the Article 50 of the EU's Lisbon Treaty has been invoked, Britain may be able to negotiate its own trade deals."}, {"context": " In 1997, the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) at Edinburgh was presented with research conducted by Drs. Sarianna Lundan and Geoffrey Jones, and commissioned by the Commonwealth Secretariat. The paper, entitled \"The 'Commonwealth Effect' and the Process of Internationalisation\", measured whether or not Commonwealth jurisdictions enjoyed a qualitative advantage in trade with one another as opposed to equivalent non-Commonwealth nations. Their research found that even in the absence of trade treaties, there was a clear cost advantage in trade between Commonwealth nations, and that the overhead costs of doing business were reduced by up to 15 percent in comparison to trade outside the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Advantage program was a shared initiative between the Toronto Branch of the Royal Commonwealth Society, and the Canadian Advanced Technology Alliance (CATA) which ran from 2004 until 2008. Chaired by the Hon. Sinclair Stevens, a former Canadian International Trade Minister, the campaign was focused on developing strategic partnerships between Commonwealth-based companies. In response to the lack of progress achieved in the Doha round of trade liberalisation negotiations in the World Trade Organization, Commonwealth Heads of Government, at their 2005 Summit in Malta, endorsed the idea of pursuing trade agreements among Commonwealth member states."}, {"context": " Because of their very different economic profiles Commonwealth countries' interests are not always aligned. In principle, resource exporters such as Canada, Australia, and most of the Caribbean and African Commonwealth countries are complementary to resource importers such as the United Kingdom and India. However, the historical trade ties between them were based on terms which were dictated by the Colonial Office in Britain. Since the former dominions and colonies have achieved independence, they are free to refuse British initiatives and seek better deals elsewhere. Specifically, agricultural exporters in the Cairns Group (including members Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Pakistan, and South Africa) are at odds with the importing countries at the World Trade Organization. These countries pursue independent trade policies. Notably Australia (2005) and Canada (1988), and Singapore (2004) have free trade agreements with the United States, and New Zealand (2008) has one with China. Meanwhile, New Zealand and Singapore are already members of the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, which Australia, Canada and Malaysia are attempting to join (along with major non-Commonwealth countries). Furthermore, the proposed Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia would include Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, India, Australia, and New Zealand."}, {"context": " Commonwealth trade, as such, has not been a notable policy position in Canada since the failed Diefenbaker proposal of the 1950s. Instead Canada has pursued deep economic integration with the United States on the one hand (including a free trade agreement in 1988), and a generalised diversification of trade on the other hand including the \"third option\" policy of the 1970 (a failed attempt to diversify Canada's trade via negotiations with Japan and the European Economic Community). This has been reinforced with a new wave of free trade agreements following NAFTA in 1994, including five Latin American countries, the European Free Trade Association and more recently the European Union, as well the failed Free Trade Area of the Americas in the early 2000s, and negotiations towards the Trans-Pacific Partnership since 2012."}, {"context": " In 2005, Canadian writer and political activist Brent H. Cameron wrote 'The Case for Commonwealth Free Trade', which argued the merits of establishing a trade and investment agreement that would initially combine the most developed member economies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Singapore) but could eventually include developing members such as India and South Africa. Cameron conceded that UK participation would be difficult with European Union (EU) membership, but suggested that it be included if Britain were to exit that agreement:"}, {"context": " \"\"It is proposed that a CFTA membership and expansion be conducted in four distinct phases: Phase 1 would see the creation of an initial grouping of four nations - Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. This grouping represents the most affluent and industrialized economies of the Commonwealth. Combined with stable political, judicial and social institutions, their ability to quickly integrate into a CFTA is vitally important if the organization is to have the ability to expand and succeed.\"\""}, {"context": " , 75% of Canadian trade takes place with countries which Canada has a free trade agreement, but this does not include any Commonwealth members. Canada is currently in negotiations with the Caribbean Community (primarily Commonwealth countries), the European Union (UK, Malta and Cyprus are Commonwealth members), as well as India and Singapore. Winston Peters, the leader of the New Zealand First political party, called in February 2016 for a Commonwealth Free Trade Area modelled on the one in existence between Australia and New Zealand. In his comments, he suggested the inclusion of the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand in this area, with the possibility of adding South Africa, India, or others, referring to the putative free trade area as a 'Closer Commonwealth Economic Relations' area, or CCER. CCER was included as New Zealand government policy in the Labour-NZ First coalition agreement."}, {"context": " The United Kingdom has been a member of the European Union and therefore has therefore been unable to negotiate its own trade agreements for several decades. However, after the United Kingdom formally leaves the European Union, it may again be able to negotiate its own trade deals. While the UK has been in the EU it has actively pressured the EU to pursue trade agreements with other Commonwealth countries. In part, this has resulted in the EU initiating negotiations on free trade agreements with a number of Commonwealth countries. At present, Canada and India are both in the midst of negotiating free trade agreements with the European Union. Furthermore, a number of Commonwealth countries, including South Africa, Cameroon, Zambia, and the 12 commonwealth members of the Caribbean Community, already have free trade agreements with the EU. The EU, through the Lome and Cotonou Agreements, have extended some preferential trade access to developing Commonwealth countries."}, {"context": " However, the idea of establishing a free trade area within the Commonwealth has garnered interests in the UK amongst politicians and parties that advocated leaving the European Union who cite the development of a Commonwealth free trade policy as an important step in reshaping the UK's trade policy. The UK Independence Party has included a call for a Commonwealth Free Trade Agreement in its policy manifesto during the 2010 British general election. In addition, some members of Britain's Conservative Party, including MEP Daniel Hannan and MP Andrew Rosindell, have written extensively on the merits of expanding trade within the Commonwealth and the broader Anglosphere."}, {"context": " On October 8, 2012, Tim Hewish and James Styles released their paper \"Common Trade, Common Wealth, Common Growth\" at the UK Conservative Party Conference in Birmingham, England. The following day saw British Foreign Secretary William Hague comment upon how the Commonwealth, which had been 'neglected' by previous UK governments, presented \"enormous opportunities\" for the nation. Supporters of Britain's membership of the European Union have criticised the proposal for a Commonwealth free trade area as unlikely in practice to come to fruition."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth men", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth men, Commonwealth's men, or Commonwealth Party were highly outspoken British Protestant religious, political, and economic reformers during the early 18th century. They were active in the movement called the Country Party. They promoted republicanism and had a great influence on Republicanism in the United States, but little impact in Britain. The most noted commonwealthmen were John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, who wrote the seminal work Cato's Letters between 1720 and 1723. Other members include Robert Crowley, Henry Brinkelow, Thomas Beccon, Thomas Lever, and John Hales. They condemned corruption and lack of morality in British political life, theorizing that only civic virtue could protect a country from despotism and ruin."}, {"context": " Their criticism about enclosure and the general material plight of the poor were particularly notable to early twentieth-century scholars like Richard Tawney who saw in them a valuable though regrettably abortive form of Christian socialism that represented a preferable alternative to the view of Max Weber that Protestantism enabled and sustained the rise of capitalism. On the other hand, it has been argued that the Commonwealth Men \"by no means stand against an individualistic or capitalistic spirit, and--despite what [for example, historians JGA Pocock and Gordon Wood] have claimed--are far from espousing classical virtue or the Aristotelian conception of man as \"zoon politikon\" [a political animal].\" \"\"'"}, {"context": " Since the 1979 publication of an article by G.\u00a0R. Elton, the existence of a \"commonwealth party\" has been widely rejected as a largely romantic, sentimental construction, and its supposed \"members\" are unlikely to be classified even as a \"movement\" now, but reference to the \"commonwealth men\" or \"commonwealthsmen\" persists in scholarly literature. Although nearly all British politicians and thinkers rejected the ideas of the commonwealth men in the eighteenth century, these writers had a powerful effect on British colonial America. It is estimated that half the private libraries in the American Colonies held bound volumes of \"Cato's Letters\" on their shelves. The Commonwealthman ideas of civic virtue, freedom, and government carefully regulated and controlled by the people were major principles in the republicanism that became the dominant ideology of the American Revolution and the new American nation."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Australia Gazette", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Australia Gazette is a printed publication of the Commonwealth Government of Australia, and serves as the official medium by which decisions of the Executive arm of Government, as distinct from Legislature and Judiciary, are promulgated. Types of announcements in the Gazette include, appointments, promotions and transfers of persons to positions in the Australian Public Service (APS), previously \"Commonwealth Public Service\"; creation, dissolution and renaming of boards, departments and commissions within the APS; conferring of awards and honours to persons and organisations by the Government; calling of tenders and awarding of contracts by the Government."}, {"context": " The \"Gazette\" is published weekly. Each \"Gazette\" is numbered, and at the start of each calendar year the numbering begins again at No. 1. The creation, publication and dissemination of a governmental gazette was one of a myriad of bureaucratic functions attendant on the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901. The first \"Commonwealth Gazette\", dated 1 January 1901, was written by Robert Garran and published on 2 January 1901. It contained Queen Victoria's proclamation dated 17 September 1900, for the establishment of the Commonwealth, the announcement of the appointment of ministers and their respective offices, and of the appointment of the Governor-General and his staff. The appearance of the first \"Gazette\" was reported by newspapers in every state, some in considerable detail."}, {"context": " By 1974 the Gazette had become so large and unwieldy that it was decided to split it into four separate publications, numbered independently: Since 1974 a range of other gazettes has been issued by the Australian Government. Their number and titles have not been constant; the current (2017) list includes: APSjobs is a website which incorporates an electronic version of the APS Employment Gazette. The Commonwealth Gazette for the years 1901\u20131957 has been digitised by the National Library of Australia and is available online through Trove.  List of government gazettes Various Commonwealth of Australia Gazette titles spanning the years 1901\u20132012 have been digitised by the National Library of Australia and are available online through Trove."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Britain Bill", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Britain Bill was a bill first introduced in 1991 by Tony Benn, then a Labour Member of Parliament in the House of Commons and was seconded by the future Leader of the Labour Party, Jeremy Corbyn. It proposed abolishing the British monarchy, with the United Kingdom becoming a \"democratic, federal and secular Commonwealth of Britain\", or in effect a republic with a codified constitution. It was read in Parliament a number of times until Benn's retirement in 2001, but never achieved a second reading. Under the Bill:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Catalonia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Catalonia (, ) was an institution which grouped the four \"diputacions\" (provincial administrations) of Catalonia. It was created on 6 April 1914, although the process of creating the institution had started in 1911, and was disbanded and outlawed in 1925 during Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship. The Lower House of the Spanish Parliament approved the creation of a Commonwealth with limited powers compared to those originally envisioned for it, however the Spanish Senate never approved the creation of the authority. On 18 December 1913 the king signed the law granting provinces the right to group themselves into associations such as the Catalan Commonwealth."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth was formed by the federation of the four Catalan provincial councils, a long-standing demand on the part of the Catalans. Even though it was restricted to purely administrative functions, and its powers did not go beyond those of the provincial administrations, it acquired great political importance: it represented the first recognition by the Spanish state of the existence and of the unity of Catalonia since the year 1714. Its first President was Enric Prat de la Riba and afterwards the architect Josep Puig i Cadafalch, both of the Lliga Regionalista, who carried out the important task of creating an efficient infrastructure of roads and ports, hydraulic works, railways, telephones, charities and health provision. The Commonwealth also undertook initiatives to increase agricultural and forest yields, introducing technological improvements, the improvement of services and education, and promoting education in technologies necessary for Catalan industry."}, {"context": " It created and consolidated a set of cultural and scientific institutions in order to give greater prestige to Catalan language and culture, such as the \"Institut d'Estudis Catalans\" (Institute of Catalan Studies), the \"Biblioteca de Catalunya\" (Library of Catalonia), the \"Escola Industrial\" (Industrial School), the \"Escola Superior de Belles Arts\" (College of Fine Arts), the College of Higher Commercial Studies or the \"Escola del Treball\" (College of Industry). Prat de la Riba also created, the \"Escola de l'Administraci\u00f3 Local\" (School of Local Administration), and required Catalan civil servants to have attended this institution.  Another important milestone of the Commonwealth was the promotion of the work of Pompeu Fabra, who was chiefly responsible for the current Catalan writing system and linguistic standard. The Commonwealth was dissolved and outlawed under Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship on 20 March 1925."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of England", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth was the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were ruled as a republic following the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. The republic's existence was declared through \"An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth\", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State. During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, as part of what is now referred to as the Third English Civil War."}, {"context": " In 1653, after the forcible dissolution of the Rump Parliament, the Army Council adopted the Instrument of Government which made Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector of a united \"Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland\", inaugurating the period now usually known as the Protectorate. After Cromwell's death, and following a brief period of rule under his son, Richard Cromwell, the Protectorate Parliament was dissolved in 1659 and the Rump Parliament recalled, the start of a process that led to the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The term Commonwealth is sometimes used for the whole of 1649 to 1660 \u2013 a period referred to by monarchists as the Interregnum \u2013 although for other historians, the use of the term is limited to the years prior to Cromwell's formal assumption of power in 1653."}, {"context": " The Rump was created by Pride's Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army. Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, the Rump passed a number of acts of Parliament creating the legal basis for the republic. With the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive and legislative power. The English Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy. It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. However, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship. After the execution of Charles I, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords. It declared the people of England \"and of all the Dominions and Territories thereunto belonging\" to be henceforth under the governance of a \"Commonwealth\", effectively a republic."}, {"context": " In Pride's Purge, all members of parliament (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed. Thus the Rump never had more than two hundred members (less than half the number of the Commons in the original Long Parliament). They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; Presbyterians who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the Newport Treaty negotiations with the King."}, {"context": " Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments. Less than one-quarter of them were regicides. This left the Rump as basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made it unlikely to want to reform them. For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland. By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats."}, {"context": " There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump. Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts. However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry. Limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals."}, {"context": " Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history. By 1653, France and Spain had recognised England's new government. Though the Church of England was retained, episcopacy was suppressed and the Act of Uniformity 1558 was repealed in September 1650. Mainly on the insistence of the Army, many independent churches were tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church."}, {"context": " Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure; for example, all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in Law French or Latin. However, there were no widespread reforms of the common law. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the common law as reinforcing their status and property rights. The Rump passed many restrictive laws to regulate people's moral behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring strict observance of Sunday. This antagonised most of the gentry."}, {"context": " Cromwell, aided by Thomas Harrison, forcibly dismissed the Rump on 20 April 1653, for reasons that are unclear. Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority. Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority. The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution; their legal, constitutional view it was unlawful was based on Charles' concessionary Act prohibiting the dissolution of Parliament without its own consent (on 11 May 1641, leading to the entire Commonwealth being the latter years of the Long Parliament in their majority view)."}, {"context": " The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone. Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship. Instead, he ruled through a 'nominated assembly' which he believed would be easy for the Army to control since Army officers did the nominating. Barebone's Parliament was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentries as being an assembly of 'inferior' people. However, over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status. (An exception was Praise-God Barebone, a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname.) Many were well educated."}, {"context": " The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it. The Radicals (approximately forty) included a hard core of Fifth Monarchists who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion. The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue. The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the status quo (since Common Law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and advowsons were valuable property)."}, {"context": " Cromwell saw Barebone's Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers. Cromwell seems to have expected this group of 'amateurs' to produce reform without management or direction. When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly. Barebone's Parliament was over."}, {"context": " Commonwealth government under the Barebones was officially by a Council of State and Parliament. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector under England's first written constitution the Instrument of Government, and then under the second and last written full constitutions, known as the Humble Petition and Advice of 1657. This meant executive power solely vested in the Lord Protector under a written and rewritten constitution that mandated that he summon triennial parliaments that should sit for several months each year."}, {"context": " On 12 April 1654, under the terms of the Tender of Union, the \"Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England\" was issued by the Lord Protector and proclaimed in Scotland by the military governor of Scotland, General George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle. The ordinance declared that \"the people of Scotland should be united with the people of England into one Commonwealth and under one Government\" and decreed that a new \"Arms of the Commonwealth\", incorporating the Saltire, should be placed on \"all the public seals, seals of office, and seals of bodies civil or corporate, in Scotland\" as \"a badge of this Union\"."}, {"context": " On the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, his son, Richard Cromwell, inherited the title, Lord Protector. Internal divisions among the Republican faction and quiet lobbying by moderates led to his resignation, the end of the Protectorate and a second brief spell of Commonwealth government by a Council of State and Parliament. The Protectorate might have continued if Cromwell's son Richard, who was made Lord Protector on his father's death, had been capable of carrying on his father's policies. Richard Cromwell's main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the New Model Army."}, {"context": " After seven months the Grandees in the New Model Army removed him and, on 6 May 1659, they reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, and one of the seven commissioners for the army. On 9 June he was nominated lord-general (commander-in-chief) of the army. However, his power was undermined in parliament, which chose to disregard the army's authority in a similar fashion to the pre\u2013Civil War parliament. On 12 October 1659 the Commons cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut and the members kept out. On 26 October a \"Committee of Safety\" was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent, by the Committee of Safety, with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms."}, {"context": " It was into this atmosphere that General George Monck marched south with his army from Scotland. Lambert's army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. On 21 February 1660, Monck reinstated the Presbyterian members of the Long Parliament 'secluded' by Pride, so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament. Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March Lambert was sent to the Tower, from which he escaped a month later. Lambert tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the \"Good Old Cause\" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill. But he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. The Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March."}, {"context": " On 4 April 1660, in response to a secret message sent by Monck, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, which made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England. Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on 23 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday. To celebrate \"his Majesty's Return to his Parliament\" 29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Independent States", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS; ), also sometimes called the Russian Commonwealth in order to distinguish it from the Commonwealth of Nations, is a regional intergovernmental organization of 10 post-Soviet republics in Eurasia formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It has an area of 20,368,759 km\u00b2 (8,097,484 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 239,796,010. The CIS encourages cooperation over economical, political and military aspects and has certain powers possessing coordinating in trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention."}, {"context": " The CIS has its origins in the Soviet Union (USSR), which was established by the 1922 Treaty and Declaration of the Creation of the USSR by the Russian SFSR, Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR. When the USSR began to fall in 1991, the founding republics signed the Belavezha Accords on 8 December 1991, declaring the Soviet Union would cease to exist and proclaimed the CIS in its place. A few days later the Alma-Ata Protocol was signed, which declared that Soviet Union was dissolved and that the Russian Federation was to be its successor state. The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), which regard their membership in the Soviet Union as an illegal occupation, chose not to participate. Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008. Ukraine, which participated as an associate member, ended its participation in CIS statutory bodies on 19 May 2018."}, {"context": " Eight of the nine CIS member states participate in the CIS Free Trade Area. Three organizations are under the overview of the CIS, namely the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Eurasian Economic Union (alongside subdivisions, the Eurasian Customs Union and the Eurasian Economic Space, which comprises territory inhabited by over 180 million people); and the Union State. While the first and the second are military and economic alliances, the third aims to reach a supranational union of Russia and Belarus with a common government, flag, currency and so on."}, {"context": " In March 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, proposed a federation by holding a referendum to preserve the Union as the Union of Sovereign States. The new treaty signing never happened as the Communist Party hardliners staged an attempted coup in August that year. Following the events of August failed coup, the republics had declared their independence fearing another coup. A week after the Ukrainian independence referendum was held, which kept the chances of the Soviet Union staying together low, the Commonwealth of Independent States was founded in it place on 8 December 1991 by the Byelorussia SSR, the Russian SFSR, and the Ukraine SSR, when the leaders of the three republics, met in the Belovezhskaya Pushcha Natural Reserve, about north of Brest in Belarus and signed the \"Agreement Establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States\", known as the \"Creation Agreement\" (, \"Soglasheniye\")."}, {"context": " The CIS announced that the new organization would be open to all republics of the former Soviet Union, and to other nations sharing the same goals. The CIS charter stated that all the members were sovereign and independent nations and thereby effectively abolished the Soviet Union. On 21 December 1991, the leaders of eight additional former Soviet Republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) signed the Alma-Ata Protocol which can either be interpreted as expanding the CIS to these states or the proper foundation or refoundation date of the CIS, thus bringing the number of participating countries to 11. Georgia joined two years later, in December 1993. At this point, 12 of the 15 former Soviet Republics participated in the CIS. The three Baltic states did not, reflecting their governments' and people's view that the post-1940 Soviet occupation of their territory was illegitimate (in 2004 they joined NATO and the European Union). The CIS and Soviet Union also legally co-existed briefly with each other until 26 December 1991, when Soviet President Gorbachev stepped down, officially dissolving the Soviet Union. This was followed by Ivan Korotchenya becoming Executive Secretary of the CIS on the same day."}, {"context": " After the end of the dissolution process of the Soviet Union, Russia and the Central Asian republics were weakened economically and faced declines in GDP. Post-Soviet states underwent economic reforms and privatisation. The process of Eurasian integration began immediately after the break-up of the Soviet Union to salvage economic ties with Post-Soviet republics. On 22 January 1993, the Charter (Statutes) of the CIS were signed, setting up the different institutions of the CIS, their functions, the rules and statutes of the CIS. The Charter also defined that all countries having ratified the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS and its relevant (Alma-Ata) Protocol would be considered to be founding states of the CIS, as well as that only countries ratifying the Charter would be considered to be member states of the CIS (art. 7). Other states can participate as associate members or observers, if accepted as such by a decision of the Council of Heads of State to the CIS (art. 8). All the founding states, apart from Ukraine and Turkmenistan, ratified the Charter of the CIS and became member states of it. Nevertheless, Ukraine and Turkmenistan kept participating in the CIS, without being member states of it. Ukraine became an associate member of the CIS Economic Union in April 1994, and Turkmenistan became an associate member of the CIS in August 2005. Georgia left the CIS altogether in 2009 and Ukraine stopped participating in 2018."}, {"context": " During a speech at Moscow State University in 1994, the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, suggested the idea of creating a \"common defense\" space within the CIS Nazarbayev idea was quickly seen as a way to bolster trade, boost investments in the region, and serve as a counterweight to the West and East Asia. Between 2003 and 2005, three CIS member states experienced a change of government in a series of colour revolutions: Eduard Shevardnadze was overthrown in Georgia; Viktor Yushchenko was elected in Ukraine; and Askar Akayev was toppled in Kyrgyzstan. In February 2006, Georgia withdrew from the Council of Defense Ministers, with the statement that \"Georgia has taken a course to join NATO and it cannot be part of two military structures simultaneously\", but it remained a full member of the CIS until August 2009, one year after officially withdrawing in the immediate aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War. In March 2007, Igor Ivanov, the secretary of the Russian Security Council, expressed his doubts concerning the usefulness of the CIS, emphasising that the Eurasian Economic Community was becoming a more competent organisation to unify the largest countries of the CIS. Following the withdrawal of Georgia, the presidents of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan skipped the October 2009 meeting of the CIS, each having their own issues and disagreements with the Russian Federation."}, {"context": " The Council of Foreign Ministers met in Dushanbe, Tajikistan on 11 April 2003 to discuss the War in Iraq and consider a draft program for the fight against terrorism and extremism, with the particularly the need for an international role in post-war Iraq, was further addressed at the May summit in St. Petersburg. In May 2009, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine joined the Eastern Partnership, a project which was initiated by the European Union (EU). There are nine full member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States."}, {"context": " The Creation Agreement remained the main constituent document of the CIS until January 1993, when the \"CIS Charter\" (, \"Ustav\") was adopted. The charter formalised the concept of membership: a member country is defined as a country that ratifies the CIS Charter (sec. 2, art. 7). Parties to CIS Creation Agreement but not the Charter are considered to be \"Founding States\" but not a full members. Turkmenistan has not ratified the Charter and therefore is not formally a member of CIS. Nevertheless, it has consistently participated in CIS as if it were a member state. Turkmenistan changed its CIS standing to associate member as of 26 August 2005 in order to be consistent with its UN-recognised international neutrality status."}, {"context": " Although Ukraine was one of the states which ratified the Creation Agreement in December 1991, making it a Founding State of the CIS, it chose not to ratify the CIS Charter as it disagrees with Russia being the only legal successor state to the Soviet Union. Thus it has never been a full a member of the CIS. However, Ukraine kept participating in the CIS, despite not being a member. In 1993, Ukraine became an associate member of CIS, Following the Russian military intervention in Ukraine and annexation of Crimea, relations between Ukraine and Russia deteriorated, leading Ukraine to consider ending its participation in the CIS. As Ukraine never ratified the Charter, it could cease its informal participation in the CIS. However, to fully terminate its relationship with the CIS it would need to legally withdraw from the Creation Agreement, as Georgia did previously. On 14 March 2014, a bill was introduced to Ukraine's parliament to denounce their ratification of the CIS Creation Agreement, but it was never approved. Following the 2014 parliamentary election, a new bill to denounce the CIS agreement was introduced. In September 2015, the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed Ukraine will continue taking part in CIS \"on a selective basis\". Since that month, Ukraine has had no representatives in the CIS Executive Committee building. In April 2018, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko indicated that Ukraine would formally leave the CIS. As of 1 June the CIS secretariat had not received formal notice from Ukraine of its withdrawal from the CIS, a process which will take 1 year following notice being given."}, {"context": " On 19 May 2018, President Poroshenko signed a decree formally ending Ukraine's participation in CIS statutory bodies. The CIS secretariat stated that it will continue inviting Ukraine to participate. Ukraine has further stated that it intends to review its participation in all CIS agreements, and only continue in those that are in its interests. The CIS secretariat stated that they will keep inviting Ukraine to participate in CIS activities. In light of Russia's support for the independence of breakaway regions within Moldova, Georgia, and Ukraine, as well as its violation of the Istanbul Agreement (see Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty), legislative initiatives to denounce the agreement on the creation of CIS were tabled in Moldova's parliament on 25 March 2014, though they were not approved. A similar bill was proposed in January 2018."}, {"context": " Two states, Ukraine and Turkmenistan, have ratified the CIS Creation Agreement, making them \"founding states of the CIS\", but did not ratify the subsequent Charter that would make them members of the CIS. These states, while not being formal members of the CIS, were allowed to participate in CIS. They were also allowed to participate in various CIS initiatives, e.g. the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area, which were, however, formulated mostly as independent multilateral agreements, and not as internal CIS agreements. Additionally, Ukraine became an associate member state of the CIS Economic Union in 1994 and Turkmenistan an associate member state of the CIS in 2005."}, {"context": " The Interparliamentary Assembly was established in 27 March 1992 in Kazakhstan. On 26 May 1995 CIS leaders signed the Convention on the Interparliamentary Assembly of Member Nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States eventually ratified by nine parliaments. Under the terms of the Convention, the IPA was invested with international legitimacy and is housed in the Tauride Palace in St Petersburg and acts as the consultative parliamentary wing of the CIS created to discuss problems of parliamentary cooperation and reviews draft documents of common interest and passes model laws to the national legislatures in the CIS (as well as recommendations) for their use in the preparation of new laws and amendments to existing legislation too which have been adopted by more than 130 documents that ensure the convergence of laws in the CIS to the national legislation. The Assembly is actively involved in the development of integration processes in the CIS and also sends observers to the national elections. The Assembly held its 32nd Plenary meeting in Saint Petersburg on 14 May 2009. Ukraine participates, but Uzbekistan does not."}, {"context": " Since its inception, one of the primary goals of the CIS has been to provide a forum for discussing issues related to the social and economic development of the newly independent states. To achieve this goal member states have agreed to promote and protect human rights. Initially, efforts to achieve this goal consisted merely of statements of good will, but on 26 May 1995, the CIS adopted a Commonwealth of Independent States Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Even before the 1995 human rights treaty, the Charter of the CIS that was adopted in 1991 created, in article 33, a Human Rights Commission sitting in Minsk, Belarus. This was confirmed by decision of the Council of Heads of States of the CIS in 1993. In 1995, the CIS adopted a human rights treaty that includes civil and political as well as social and economic human rights. This treaty entered into force in 1998. The CIS treaty is modeled on the European Convention on Human Rights, but lacking the strong implementation mechanisms of the latter. In the CIS treaty, the Human Rights Commission has very vaguely defined authority. The Statute of the Human Rights Commission, however, also adopted by the CIS Member States as a decision, gives the Commission the right to receive inter-state as well as individual communications."}, {"context": " CIS members, especially in Central Asia, continue to have among the world's poorest human rights records. Many activists point examples such as the 2005 Andijan massacre in Uzbekistan to show that there has been almost no improvement in human rights since the collapse of the Soviet Union in Central Asia. The consolidation of power by President Vladimir Putin has resulted in a steady decline in the modest progress of previous years in Russia. The Commonwealth of Independent States continues to face serious challenges in meeting even basic international standards."}, {"context": " The CIS Charter establishes the Council of Ministers of Defense, which is vested with the task of coordinating military cooperation of the CIS member states. To this end, the Council develops conceptual approaches to the questions of military and defense policy of the CIS member states; develops proposals aimed to prevent armed conflicts on the territory of the member states or with their participation; gives expert opinions on draft treaties and agreements related to the questions of defense and military developments; issues related suggestions and proposals to the attention of the CIS Council of the Heads of State. Also important is the Council's work on approximation of the legal acts in the area of defense and military development."}, {"context": " An important manifestation of integration processes in the area of military and defense collaboration of the CIS member states is the creation, in 1995, of the joint CIS Air Defense System. Over the years, the military personnel of the joint CIS Air Defense System grew twofold along the western, European border of the CIS, and by 1.5 times on its southern borders. When Boris Yeltsin became Russian Defence Minister on 7 May 1992, Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of the CIS Armed Forces, and his staff were ejected from the MOD and General Staff buildings and given offices in the former Warsaw Pact Headquarters at 41 Leningradsky Prospekt on the northern outskirts of Moscow. Shaposhnikov resigned in June 1993."}, {"context": " In December 1993, the CIS Armed Forces Headquarters was abolished. Instead, \"the CIS Council of Defence Ministers created a CIS Military Cooperation Coordination Headquarters (MCCH) in Moscow, with 50 per cent of the funding provided by Russia.\" General Viktor Samsonov was appointed as Chief of Staff. The headquarters has now moved to 101000, \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0432\u0430, \u0421\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0447\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0443\u043b\u043e\u043a, 3/2, and 41 Leningradsky Prospekt has now been taken over by another Russian MOD agency. The chiefs of the CIS general staffs have spoken in favor of integrating their national armed forces."}, {"context": " The CIS is known to have mediated some regional hostilities between the \"Stan countries\" in Central Asia. In 1994, negotiations were initiated between the CIS countries on free trade area (FTA), but no agreement was signed. A proposed free trade agreement would have covered all twelve then CIS members except Turkmenistan. In 2009, a new agreement was begun to create a FTA, the CIS Free Trade Agreement (CISFTA). In October 2011, the new free trade agreement was signed by eight of the eleven CIS prime ministers; Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine at a meeting in St. Petersburg. Initially, the treaty was only ratified by Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, however by the end of 2012, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and Moldova had also completed ratification. In December 2013, Uzbekistan, signed and then ratified the treaty, while the remaining two signatories, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan later both ratified the treaty in January 2014 and December 2015 respectively. Azerbaijan is the only full CIS member state not to participate in the free trade area."}, {"context": " The free trade agreement eliminates export and import duties on a number of goods but also contains a number of exemptions that will ultimately be phased out. An agreement was also signed on the basic principles of currency regulation and currency controls in the CIS at the same October 2011 meeting. Corruption and bureaucracy are serious problems for trade in CIS countries. Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev proposed that CIS members take up a digitization agenda to modernize CIS economies."}, {"context": " After discussion about the creation of a common economic space between the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, agreement in principle about the creation of this space was announced after a meeting in the Moscow suburb of Novo-Ogarevo on 23 February 2003. The Common Economic Space would involve a supranational commission on trade and tariffs that would be based in Kiev, would initially be headed by a representative of Kazakhstan, and would not be subordinate to the governments of the four nations. The ultimate goal would be a regional organisation that would be open for other countries to join as well, and could eventually lead even to a single currency."}, {"context": " On 22 May 2003, the \"Verkhovna Rada\" (the Ukrainian Parliament) voted 266 votes in favour and 51 against the joint economic space. However, most believe that Viktor Yushchenko's victory in the Ukrainian presidential election of 2004 was a significant blow against the project: Yushchenko has shown renewed interest in Ukrainian membership in the European Union and such membership would be incompatible with the envisioned common economic space. Yushchenko's successor Viktor Yanukovych stated on 27 April 2010 \"Ukraine's entry into the Customs Union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan is not possible today, since the economic principles and the laws of the WTO do not allow it, we develop our policy in accordance with WTO principles\". Ukraine is a WTO member."}, {"context": " A Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia was thus created in 2010, with a single market envisioned for 2012. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan formed the OCAC in 1991 as Central Asian Commonwealth (CAC). The organisation continued in 1994 as the Central Asian Economic Union (CAEU), in which Tajikistan and Turkmenistan did not participate. In 1998 it became the Central Asian Economic Cooperation (CAEC), which marked the return of Tajikistan. On 28 February 2002 it was renamed to its current name. Russia joined on 28 May 2004. On 7 October 2005 it was decided between the member states that Uzbekistan will join the Eurasian Economic Community and that the organisations will merge. The organisations joined on 25 January 2006. It is not clear what will happen to the status of current CACO observers that are not observers to EurAsEC (Georgia and Turkey)."}, {"context": " The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration among the members. The CIS-Election Monitoring Organisation () is an election monitoring body that was formed in October 2002, following a Commonwealth of Independent States heads of states meeting which adopted the \"Convention on the Standards of Democratic Elections, Electoral Rights, and Freedoms in the Member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States\". The CIS-EMO has been sending election observers to member countries of the CIS since this time; they approved many elections which have been heavily criticised by independent observers."}, {"context": " Russia has been urging that the Russian language receive official status in all of the CIS member states. So far Russian is an official language in only four of these states: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Russian is also considered an official language in the region of Transnistria, and the autonomous region of Gagauzia in Moldova. Viktor Yanukovych, the Moscow-supported presidential candidate in the controversial 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, declared his intention to make Russian an official second language of Ukraine. However, the Western-supported candidate Viktor Yushchenko, the winner, did not do so. After his early 2010 election as President Yanukovych stated (on 9 March 2010) that \"Ukraine will continue to promote the Ukrainian language as its only state language\"."}, {"context": " At the time of the Soviet Union's dissolution in December 1991, had been invited to or qualified for various 1992 sports events. A joint CIS team took its place in some of these. The \"Unified Team\" competed in the 1992 Winter Olympics and 1992 Summer Olympics, and a CIS association football team competed in UEFA Euro 1992. A CIS bandy team played some friendlies in January 1992 and made its last appearance at the 1992 Russian Government Cup, where it also played against the new Russia national bandy team. The Soviet Union bandy championship for 1991\u20131992 was rebranded as a CIS championship.  Since then, CIS members have each competed separately in international sport. In 2017 a festival for national sports and games, \"\u0424\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0446\u0438\u043e\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0430 \u0438 \u0438\u0433\u0440 \u0433\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432 \u2014 \u0443\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0421\u043e\u0434\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u041d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0445 \u0413\u043e\u0441\u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u0441\u0442\u0432\", was held in Ulyanovsk. The main sports were sambo, tug of war, mas-wrestling, gorodki, belt wrestling, lapta, bandy (rink), kettlebell lifting, chess and archery. A few demonstration sports were also a part of the programme."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Independent States Cup", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Independent States Cup () is a defunct annual regional association football tournament, recognized by FIFA. The tournament was initially established for football clubs of the former Soviet Union republics in 1993 (a year later since the collapse). On several occasions, some national football organizations of the former Soviet republics as well as individual clubs refused participation in the tournament for different reasons. Usually the invitation was sent to the best clubs of the Commonwealth of Independent States member states, as well as Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, i.e. either a champion or a runner-up, while in the later editions the Cup (before 2012) saw participation of clubs from Serbia and Finland."}, {"context": " In 2012, the CIS Cup became a competition of national youth teams. Previously only the Russia under-21 team competed in the competition. The competition was disestablished in 2016. The Commonwealth of Independent States Cup started in 1993 as an open tournament to champions from the USSR successor states (The Commonwealth of Independent States, and well as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Ukraine boycotted the first two competitions, but joined in 1995. In 1995-2006 the Russia national under-21 football team participated in the tournament as the 16th team, but in 2007 and 2008 Serbia replaced it as the 17th nation sending a team to play in it, and became the first non-former Soviet Union nation participating in the tournament. Unlike the rest of the states, who send their latest champions to play in the tournament, Serbia has sent OFK Beograd to play in the tournament."}, {"context": " In its first years the tournament was popular in the territories of the former Soviet Union, including the most titled teams from the old Soviet Top League. Spartak Moscow from Russia, and Dynamo Kyiv from Ukraine each won the cup several times but, after less than a decade, the teams from Russia and Ukraine became hesitant to send their best players to play on the artificial turf at the Olympic Stadium, so they sent their reserve players instead or sometimes the league runners-up participated in their place. This resulted in the decrease of the tournament's popularity in those states particularly and in the international value of the tournament overall."}, {"context": " In 2006 a new tournament, Channel One Cup, started and caught the attention of the Russian and Ukrainian teams, which even more decreased the popularity of the Commonwealth of Independent States Cup tournament. A big scandal occurred in 2006, when the Armenian champion FC Pyunik refused to play the Azerbaijani team, PFC Neftchi due to the collapse of diplomatic relations between the two countries' governments at that time around the Nagorno-Karabakh War. FC Pyunik defeated Ukrainian team FC Shakhtar Donetsk 3-1 in the quarter-final, earning a place in the semi-final against PFC Neftchi. However, FC Pyunik announced that they would no play against an Azerbaijani team, and flew home from Moscow the same evening. The Russian Football Union gave FC Shakhtar Donetsk a technical victory 3-0 so they could play in the semi-final instead of FC Pyunik, but FC Shakhtar Donetsk declined the offer stating that \"...we would really want to play in the semi-final, but we don't want to get there by any other way than sport\". Eventually, PFC Neftchi were given a bye to the final, where they defeated the Lithuanian club FBK Kaunas 4-2.  In 2007 talks began about changing the format of the cup, and uniting it with the Channel One Cup in order to bring back the interest of the Russian and Ukrainian teams, and in 2007 its games were even visited by representatives from FIFA, but nevertheless, nothing came out from those talks and efforts. In October 2009, Bunyodkor coach Luis Felipe Scolari announced that his Uzbek side would not enter the 2010 tournament due to focusing on the Asian Champions League."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area (CISFTA) is a free trade area between Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Moldova, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. Five CISFTA participants, all except Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Moldova and Tajikistan, are members of the Eurasian Economic Union, comprising a single economic market. The Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Zone Agreement, proposed since the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, was signed on 18 October 2011 by Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Moldova and Armenia. The agreement replaces existing bilateral and multilateral free trade agreements between the countries. Initially, the treaty was only ratified by Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, however by the end of 2012, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and Moldova had also completed ratification. In December 2013, Uzbekistan, signed and then ratified the treaty, while the remaining two signatories, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan later both ratified the treaty in January 2014 and December 2015 respectively. Azerbaijan is the only full CIS member state not to participate in the free trade area."}, {"context": " From 1 January 2016, Ukraine and the European Union started provisionally applying a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement. Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union held consultations on 22 December 2015 to discuss the implications of the agreement concerning the possible duty-free transit of EU goods into the EEU via Ukraine. The states agreed to implement a provisional scheme later in 2016 that would impose customs checks on goods entering the EEU from Ukraine; and long term, to establish a common information system to control all imports into the EEU's customs area. Nonetheless, Russia signed a decree in mid-December 2015 suspending its CIS Free Trade Agreement with respect to Ukraine from 1 January 2016. In late December, the Ukrainian Government responded by passing trade restrictions on Russia, with effect from 2 January 2016. Agreements between Ukraine and other EEU states within the free trade area remain in effect.  An overview of signatures and ratifications is shown below:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Independent States national bandy team", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Independent States national bandy team was the new name for the Soviet Union national bandy team after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. The team only existed in January and February 1992, playing games which the Soviet Union previously had been booked for. Its last appearance was at the Russian Government Cup 1992 on 28 January \u2013 2 February 1992, where it was also playing against the new Russia national bandy team. Since then, the Commonwealth of Independent States does not have a unified bandy team, as many of the member states of the commonwealth have set up their own national teams.  There was also an equally short-lived youth team for the Commonwealth, taking part in the 1992 Bandy World Championship Y-23."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Learning", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation of The Commonwealth headquartered in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Working collaboratively with governmental and nongovernmental organizations and other institutions in the Commonwealth, as well as with international development agencies, COL has the mandate to promote the use of open learning and distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. The Board of Governors is chaired by Linda Sissons, a former Chief Executive Officer of New Zealand's Wellington Institute of Technology."}, {"context": " COL was founded at the 1987 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) and inaugurated in 1988. Its title is a phrase used by philosopher John Locke to describe the body of knowledge developed over time by scientists and other thinkers, for the benefit of all people. At the time of its founding, COL focused on promoting economic development by providing education and teaching skills. In 2012, Professor Asha Kanwar was appointed the President and Chief Executive Officer of COL. In 2015, COL created a fifteen-year strategic plan to align itself with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), specifically SDG4, which work to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all by 2030. That year Canada contributed $5 million to support the activities of the COL. Since then COL has continued to use its expertise and infrastructure for distance education to promote lifelong learning for economic empowerment, social inclusion and environmental conservation."}, {"context": " COL also conducts research into effective methods of delivering distance education. COL hosts a triennial Pan-Commonwealth Forum (PCF) on Open Learning where its Excellence in Distance Education Awards (EDEA) are presented. The 2016 PCF was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and was attended by about 500 participants from 60 countries, including several Commonwealth ministers of education. The forum resulted in the 2016 Kuala Lumpur Declaration, which explains how distance and technology-based learning can lead to sustainable development."}, {"context": " Financial support for COL's core operations is provided by Commonwealth governments on a voluntary basis, with primary funding renewed every three years. COL also receives additional contributions from other development sources and provides fee-for-service distance education and open learning course delivery and training for various international agencies. COL's major financial contributors include Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Nigeria, South Africa and the United Kingdom, all of which have representatives on COL's Board of Governors."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Madrid", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Statute of Autonomy of the Madrid Autonomous Community establishes that the government of the community is exercised through the institution of the Commonwealth of Madrid (). The Statute of Autonomy is the fundamental organic law in conjunction with the Spanish constitution. The name \"Comunidad\" links the new government structure with the Middle Ages institution of \"Comunidades de Villa y Tierra\" and also links with the government structure of Castile-La Mancha, who is called \"\"Junta de Comunidades\"\" (Union of Commonwealths in freely translation) as Castile-La Mancha is formed from different cities and territories. In this sense the term \"Comunidad\" as Commonwealth, should be differentiated from the term Community cause the Madrid Autonomous Community refers both the territory (the Land of Madrid) as the government organism (the Commonwealth of Madrid).  This distinction occurs in most of the Autonomous Communities of Spain, like Catalonia or the Valencian Community (the \"Generalitat\" only refers the government organism) or Asturias (the \"Junta General\" comprises both the legislative and executive branches of the government organism). The Commonwealth of Madrid is so formed by a legislative, the Madrid Assembly, and an executive branch: the President of Madrid and the Government Council."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Municipalities of the Vall d'Albaida", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Municipalities of the Vall d'Albaida is \"the\" mancommunity of the comarca of the Vall d'Albaida, Spain. It is composed by the 34 municipalities that make up the \"comarca\" with a total population of 90,783 inhabitants, with an extension of 721.60\u00a0km\u00b2 (278.61sq mi) The current (2015) president of the Commonwealth is Vicent Gomar Moscard\u00f3. The commonwealth is responsible for promoting and coordinating the proper function of the following activities throughout the Vall d'Albaida:  The towns and cities that form the Commonwealth are:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Nations", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of Nations, normally known as the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The chief institutions of the organisation are the Commonwealth Secretariat, which focuses on intergovernmental aspects, and the Commonwealth Foundation, which focuses on non-governmental relations between member states. The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as the \"British Commonwealth of Nations\" through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, and formalised by the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which modernised the community, and established the member states as \"free and equal\". The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is head of state of 16 member states, known as the Commonwealth realms, while 32 other members are republics and five others have different monarchs."}, {"context": " Member states have no legal obligations to one another. Instead, they are united by English language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games. The countries of the Commonwealth cover more than , equivalent to 20% of the world's land area and spans all six inhabited continents. Queen Elizabeth II, in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that the confederation of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the \"first independent country within the British Empire\". She declared: \"So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations.\" As long ago as 1884 Lord Rosebery had described, while visiting Australia, the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a \"Commonwealth of Nations\". Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he coined the term \"the British Commonwealth of Nations\" and envisioned the \"future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence\" at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 by delegates from the Dominions as well as Britain. The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, when the term \"British Commonwealth of Nations\" was substituted for \"British Empire\" in the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of the Irish Free State."}, {"context": " In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain and its dominions agreed they were \"equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.\" The term \"Commonwealth\" was officially adopted to describe the community. These aspects to the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, the government of Newfoundland voluntarily ended and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively."}, {"context": " Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws\u2014the Status of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act of 1934\u2014were passed to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state. After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word \"British\" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature."}, {"context": " Burma (also known as Myanmar, 1948) and Aden (1967) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), British Palestine (part of which became the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United Arab Emirates (1971)."}, {"context": " The postwar Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, where she envisioned the Commonwealth as \"an entirely new conception \u2013 built on the highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace.\" Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, and in 1966 a solo circumnavigation of the globe. However, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a central role of the British Empire: the defence of the Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britain's withdrawal from Greece in 1947 had painfully demonstrated. Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada. The ANZUS treaty of 1955 linked Australia, New Zealand, and the United States in a defensive alliance, with Britain and the Commonwealth left out. The second major function of the Empire made London the financial centre of the system. After the Second World War, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. The loss of defence and financial roles, furthermore, undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence, and social growth arm. Furthermore, Britain's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore. While British elites at first hoped the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan. Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire in Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale."}, {"context": " On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948. Because it did this, it was automatically excluded from the Commonwealth. While Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s and was content to leave the Commonwealth, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would accept the British Sovereign as a \"symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth\". Upon hearing this, King George VI told the Indian politician Krishna Menon: \"So, I've become 'as such'\". The other Commonwealth countries recognised India's continuing membership of the association. At Pakistan's insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India."}, {"context": " The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs, while some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but their monarchies developed differently and soon became fully independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personality in each realm, even though the same person is monarch of each realm."}, {"context": " Planners in the interwar period, like Lord Davies, who had also taken \"a prominent part in building up the League of Nations Union\" in the United Kingdom, in 1932 founded the New Commonwealth Society, of which British section Winston Churchill became the president. This new society was aimed at the creation of an international air force to be the arm of the League of Nations, to allow nations to disarm and safeguard the peace. The term New Commonwealth has been used in the UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, predominantly non-white and developing. It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries. Britain and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the white Commonwealth."}, {"context": " At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning for what later became the European Union, and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent Britain from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than trade with Europe. The British government under Prime Minister Anthony Eden considered in 1956 and 1957 a \"plan G\" to create a European free trade zone while also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth. Britain also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth so it would become a major economic common market. At one point in October 1956 Eden and French Prime Minister Guy Mollet discussed having France join the Commonwealth. Nothing came of any of the proposals."}, {"context": " Under the formula of the London Declaration, Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, a title that is by law a part of Elizabeth's royal titles in each of the Commonwealth realms, the 16 members of the Commonwealth that recognise the Queen as their monarch. When the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become Head of the Commonwealth. However, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his mother as head. The position is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members, the majority of which (31) are republics, and five have monarchs of different royal houses (Brunei, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Tonga)."}, {"context": " The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth heads of government, including (amongst others) prime ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs."}, {"context": " The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called the \"Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office\" and retains the position until the following CHOGM. After the most recent CHOGM, in London, UK, from 18 to 20 April 2018 the UK's prime minister, Theresa May, became the Chairperson-in-Office and will continue to hold the title until the next CHOGM, scheduled to take place in Rwanda in 2020. The Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation among member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in the United Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer. The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values."}, {"context": " The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal, from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh Sharma of India (2008\u20132016). The first secretary-general was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965\u201375), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975\u201390), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990\u201399), and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000\u20132008)."}, {"context": " In recognition of their shared heritage and culture, Commonwealth countries are not considered to be \"foreign\" to each other, although the technical extent of this concept varies in different countries. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions no distinction is made between Commonwealth and foreign countries: in the High Court case of \"Sue v Hill\", other Commonwealth countries were held to be foreign powers; similarly, in \"Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs\", the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be 'aliens'. Nevertheless, the closer association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected at least in the diplomatic protocols of the Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors. Between two Commonwealth realms, they represent the head of government rather than the head of state."}, {"context": " In addition, some members treat resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries preferentially to citizens of non-Commonwealth countries. Britain and several others, mostly in the Caribbean, grant the right to vote to Commonwealth citizens who reside in those countries. In non-Commonwealth countries in which their own country is not represented, Commonwealth citizens may seek consular assistance at the British embassy. Other alternatives can also occur such as an emergency consular services agreement between Canada and Australia that began in 1986."}, {"context": " The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, as a fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised the British monarch as the \"Head of the Commonwealth\". In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade."}, {"context": " These criteria were unenforceable for two decades, until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War, and the end of apartheid in South Africa. The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration. Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member."}, {"context": " In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles, be fully sovereign states, recognise the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership. These requirements had undergone review, and a report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM."}, {"context": " New members must \"as a general rule\" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g. Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Namibia to South Africa). The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member was Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, in 1995 following its first democratic elections and South Africa's re-admission in 1994. Mozambique's controversial entry led to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines. In 2009, Rwanda became the second Commonwealth member admitted not to have any such constitutional links. It was a Belgian trust territory that had been a German colony until World War I. Consideration for its admission was considered an \"exceptional circumstance\" by the Commonwealth Secretariat."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth comprises 53 countries, across all continents. The members have a combined population of 2.3\u00a0billion people, almost a third of the world population, of which 1.26\u00a0billion live in India and 94% live in Asia and Africa combined. After India, the next-largest Commonwealth countries by population are Pakistan (180\u00a0million), Nigeria (170\u00a0million), Bangladesh (156\u00a0million), the United Kingdom (65\u00a0million), South Africa (55\u00a0million) Canada (36\u00a0million), Ghana (27\u00a0million) and Australia (24\u00a0million). Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 10,000 people."}, {"context": " The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about , or about 21% of the total world land area. The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at , Australia at , and India at . In 2016, the Commonwealth members had a combined gross domestic product of over $9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: United Kingdom ($2.629 trillion), India ($2.256 trillion), Canada ($1.529 trillion), and Australia ($1.258 trillion). The status of \"Member in Arrears\" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status was originally known as \"special membership\", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership's recommendation. There are currently no Members in Arrears. The most recent Member in Arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011. Nauru has alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation."}, {"context": " In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions. South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth. A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that \"many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach\". The State of Palestine is also a potential candidate for membership."}, {"context": " President Yahya Jammeh unilaterally withdrew The Gambia from the Commonwealth in October 2013. However, newly elected president Adama Barrow returned the country to the organisation in February 2018. Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaining inhabited British overseas territories, Crown dependencies, Australian external territories and the Associated States of New Zealand if they become fully independent. Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family. There are also former British possessions that have not become independent, for example, Hong Kong, which still participates in some of the institutions within the Commonwealth Family. All three Crown dependencies regard the existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change. The States of Jersey have called on the UK Foreign Secretary to request that the Commonwealth Heads of Government \"consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy\". Jersey has proposed that it be accorded \"self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in debates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions with those who are full members; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings, which is reserved for full members\". The States of Guernsey and the Government of the Isle of Man have made calls of a similar nature for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth, including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and meetings, including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings. The Chief Minister of the Isle of Man has said: \"A closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further development of the Island's international relationships\"."}, {"context": " At the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French Premier Guy Mollet proposed to British Prime Minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined in a \"union\". When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with \"a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis.\" Talks regarding a form of union faded away with the end of the Suez crisis. In recent years, the Commonwealth has suspended several members \"from the Councils of the Commonwealth\" for \"serious or persistent violations\" of the Harare Declaration, particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government. This is done by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation. Currently, there are no suspended members."}, {"context": " Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999, following its execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM. Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999, following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf. The Commonwealth's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the restoration of the country's constitution. Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharraf called a state of emergency. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF government, before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003. On 15 May 2018, Zimbabwe applied to rejoin the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " The declaration of a Republic in Fiji in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made. Fiji has since been suspended twice, with the first imposed from 6 June 2000 to 20 December 2001 after another coup. Fiji was suspended yet again in December 2006, following the most recent coup. At first, the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth. After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national elections by 2010, Fiji was \"fully suspended\" on 1 September 2009. The Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings, sporting events and the technical assistance programme (with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat. On 19 March 2014 Fiji's full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji to join a number of Commonwealth activities, including the Commonwealth Games. Fiji's suspension was lifted in September 2014. The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member following elections in September 2014."}, {"context": " Most recently, during 2013 and 2014, international pressure mounted to suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth, citing grave human rights violations by the government of President Mahinda Rajapaksa. There were also calls to change the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka to another member country. Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper threatened to boycott the event, but was instead represented at the meeting by Deepak Obhrai. UK Prime Minister David Cameron also chose to attend. These concerns were rendered moot by the election of opposition leader Maithripala Sirisena as President in 2015."}, {"context": " As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe's membership was suspended in 2002 on the grounds of alleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment, and Zimbabwe's government terminated its membership in 2003. The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013, and rejoined on 8 February 2018. The Maldives withdrew from the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016. The Maldivian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that \"the Commonwealth has not recognised [...] the progress and achievements that the Maldives accomplished in cultivating a culture of democracy in the country and in building and strengthening democratic institutions\". The Ministry also cited the Commonwealth's \"punitive actions against the Maldives since 2012\" after the allegedly forced resignation of Maldivian President Mohamed Nasheed among the reasons for withdrawal. The Ministry characterized the decision to withdraw as \"difficult, but inevitable\". Following the election of Ibrahim Mohamed Solih as president in November 2018, the Maldives announced its intention to reapply to join the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " Although heads of government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. Until 1948, there was a consensus among the existing half-dozen Commonwealth members that a Commonwealth realms that became a republic would ceased to be members but the situation changed in 1948 when newly-independent India announced its intention do become a republic on 1 January 1950 although it wished to remain in the Commonwealth. This was granted. Now, the majority of the Commonwealth members, including all those from Africa, are republics or have their own native monarch."}, {"context": " Ireland had withdrawn its participation in the Commonwealth in the 1930s, attending its last Commonwealth governmental heads' meeting in 1932. However it continued to be regarded by the Commonwealth as a Commonwealth member until it declared itself a republic, on 18 April 1949. It is the only country whose membership terminated without any declaration withdrawing from the organisation. Instead, it was (with its own tacit support) excluded from the organisation under the rules then applicable. South Africa was barred from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of racial apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following its first multiracial elections that year."}, {"context": " The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997 ended the colony's ties to the Commonwealth through the United Kingdom. The government of Hong Kong, as a special administrative region of China, did not pursue membership. Hong Kong has nevertheless continued to participate in some of the organisations of the Commonwealth family, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association (hosted the Commonwealth Lawyers Conference in 1983 and 2009), the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (and the Westminster Seminar on Parliamentary Practice and Procedures), the Association of Commonwealth Universities and the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade. To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka Declaration of 1979, and environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Declaration of 1989. These objectives were reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth's current highest-priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003 Aso Rock Declaration, which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, \"We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation.\" The Commonwealth website lists its areas of work as: democracy, economics, education, gender, governance, human rights, law, small states, sport, sustainability, and youth."}, {"context": " Through a separate voluntary fund, Commonwealth governments support the Commonwealth Youth Programme, a division of the Secretariat with offices in Gulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh (India), Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara (Solomon Islands). In recent years, the Commonwealth has been accused of not being vocal enough on its core values. Allegations of a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructing staff not to speak out on human rights were published in October 2010. The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 considered a report by a Commonwealth Eminent Persons Group (EPG) panel which asserted that the organisation had lost its relevance and was decaying due to the lack of a mechanism to censure member countries when they violated human rights or democratic norms. The panel made 106 \"urgent\" recommendations including the adoption of a Charter of the Commonwealth, the creation of a new commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and human rights to track persistent human rights abuses and allegations of political repression by Commonwealth member states, recommendations for the repeal of laws against homosexuality in 41 Commonwealth states and a ban on forced marriage. The failure to release the report, or accept its recommendations for reforms in the area of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, was decried as a \"disgrace\" by former British Foreign Secretary Sir Malcolm Rifkind, a member of the EPG, who told a press conference: \"The Commonwealth faces a very significant problem. It's not a problem of hostility or antagonism, it's more of a problem of indifference. Its purpose is being questioned, its relevance is being questioned and part of that is because its commitment to enforce the values for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyes of many member states. The Commonwealth is not a private club of the governments or the secretariat. It belongs to the people of the Commonwealth.\""}, {"context": " In the end, two-thirds of the EPG's 106 urgently recommended reforms were referred to study groups, an act described by one EPG member as having them \"kicked into the long grass\". There was no agreement to create the recommended position of human rights commissioner, instead a ministerial management group was empowered with enforcement: the group includes alleged human rights offenders. It was agreed to develop a charter of values for the Commonwealth without any decision on how compliance with its principles would be enforced."}, {"context": " The result of the effort was that a new Charter of the Commonwealth was signed by Queen Elizabeth on 11 March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes \"all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, colour, creed, political belief or other grounds\". In March 2015, the Commonwealth Freedom of Movement Organisation proposed that the national governments of the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada \u2014 the four Commonwealth countries with a white, Anglo-Saxon majority \u2014 should advocate for freedom of movement between citizens of their countries, similar to the current arrangement existing between Australia and New Zealand through the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement. In May 2016, Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom Alexander Downer expressed support for \"freer movement\" between Australia and the United Kingdom, stating: \"Over time we would like to continue to talk to the British government about arrangements we could make to liberalise movement between Australia and the UK, if not have completely free movement...\"."}, {"context": " During the Second World War, the Commonwealth played a major role in helping British finances. Foreign exchange reserves were pooled in London, to be used to fight the war. In effect Britain borrowed \u00a32.3 billion, of which \u00a31.3 billion was from India. The debt was held in the form of British government securities and became known as \"sterling balances.\" By 1950, India, Pakistan and Ceylon had spent much of their sterling, while other countries accumulated more. The sterling area that included all of the Commonwealth except for Canada, together with some smaller countries especially in the Persian Gulf. They held their foreign-exchange in sterling, protecting that currency from runs, and facilitating trade and investment inside the Commonwealth. It was a formal relationship with fixed exchange rates, and periodic meetings at Commonwealth summits to coordinate trade policy, and domestic economic policies. Britain ran a trade surplus, and the other countries were mostly producers of raw materials sold to Britain. However the British economy was sluggish, compared to Western Europe, by the 1960s, and the commercial rationale was gradually less attractive to the Commonwealth. Access to the growing London capital market, however, remained an important advantage to the newly independent nations. As Britain moved increasingly close to Europe, however, the long-term ties began to be in doubt."}, {"context": " Britain had focused on the Commonwealth after the war, and largely ignored links with Europe. By the 1960s with a sluggish economy Britain tried repeatedly to join the European Economic Community, but this was repeatedly vetoed by Charles de Gaulle. After his death, entry was finally achieved in 1972. Queen Elizabeth was one of the few remaining links between the UK and the Commonwealth. She tried to reassure the other countries that the Commonwealth family was joining forces with the Europeans, and that the new links would not replace the old Commonwealth ties based on historical attachments, which were too sacred to break. Historian Ben Pimlott argues that she was mistaken, for joining Europe, \"constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between Britain and its former Empire...It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal niceties.\""}, {"context": " The newly independent countries of Africa and Asia concentrated on their own internal political and economic development, and sometimes with their role in the Cold War. The United States, international agencies, and the Soviet Union became important players, and the British role receded. Indeed, the British considered them burdensome and were themselves alienated from traditional imperialism. The former colonies would rather have a prosperous Britain linked to a prosperous Europe, rather than a declining loner. The dominions saw that their historic ties with Britain were rapidly fraying. The Canadian economy was increasingly integrated with the United States, and had less and less to do with Britain or other Commonwealth nations. Internal Canadian disputes revolved around the growing American cultural economic presence, and the strong force of Qu\u00e9bec nationalism and even independence. In 1964 the Maple Leaf flag replaced the old Union Jack to the sorrow of many Anglophiles\u2014it was \"the last gasp of empire.\" Australia and New Zealand were in deep shock but kept a low profile not wanting to alienate London. Nevertheless, the implications of British entry into Europe:"}, {"context": " Although the Commonwealth does not have a multilateral trade agreement, research by the Royal Commonwealth Society has shown that trade with another Commonwealth member is up to 50% more than with a non-member on average, with smaller and less wealthy states having a higher propensity to trade within the Commonwealth. At the 2005 Summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed pursuing free trade among Commonwealth members on a bilateral basis. There have been various proposals for a Commonwealth free trade zone, however none have so far come to pass. Following its vote in June 2016 to leave the EU, some politicians in the United Kingdom have suggested the idea as an alternative to its membership in the European Union, however it is far from clear that this would either offer sufficient economic benefit to replace the impact of leaving the EU or be acceptable to other member states Although the EU is already in the process of negotiating free trade agreements with many Commonwealth countries such as India and Canada, it took the EU almost ten years to come to an agreement with Canada, due to the challenge associated with achieving the necessary EU-wide approvals."}, {"context": " Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education, law and charity. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through scholarships, principally the Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centred and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture. The Foundation was established in 1965 by the Heads of Government. Admittance is open to all members of the Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at 46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London. Regular liaison and co-operation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Games, a multi-sport event, is held every four years; the 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow, Scotland, and the 2018 Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast, Australia. Birmingham is set to be the host for 2022 Commonwealth Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as at the Summer Olympic Games, the games include sports particularly popular in the Commonwealth, such as bowls, netball, and rugby sevens. Started in 1930 as the Empire Games, the games were founded on the Olympic model of amateurism, but were deliberately designed to be \"the Friendly Games\", with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage."}, {"context": " The games are the Commonwealth's most visible activity and interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly when the Games are held. There is controversy over whether the games\u2014and sport generally\u2014should be involved in the Commonwealth's wider political concerns. The 1977 Gleneagles Agreement was signed to commit Commonwealth countries to combat apartheid through discouraging sporting contact with South Africa (which was not then a member), whilst the 1986 games were boycotted by most African, Asian, and Caribbean countries for the failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for maintaining the war graves of 1.7\u00a0million service personnel that died in the First and Second World Wars fighting for Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial War Graves Commission), the Commission has constructed 2,500 war cemeteries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000 sites around the world. The vast majority of the latter are civilian cemeteries in Britain. In 1998, the CWGC made the records of its buried online to facilitate easier searching."}, {"context": " Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similar horticulture and architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to a Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance. The CWGC is notable for marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of origin, race, or religion of the buried. It is funded by voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves maintained, with 75% of the funding coming from Britain. The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by the Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) is a global local government organisation, bringing together local authorities, their national associations and the ministries responsible for local government in the member countries of the Commonwealth. CLGF works with national and local governments to support the development of democratic values and good local governance and is the associated organisation officially recognised by Commonwealth Heads of Government as the representative body for local government in the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " CLGF is unique in bringing together central, provincial and local spheres of government involved in local government policy and decision-making. CLGF members include local government associations, individual local authorities, ministries dealing with local government, and research and professional organisations who work with local government. Practitioner to practitioner support is at the core of CLGF's work across the Commonwealth and within the region, using CLGF's own members to support others both within and between regions. CLGF is a member of the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, the formal partner of the UN Major Group of Local Authorities."}, {"context": " Many Commonwealth nations possess traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy, common law, widespread use of the English language, designation of English as an official language, military and naval ranks, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see English in the Commonwealth of Nations). Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially British in character, rooted in and developed under British rule or hegemony, including football, cricket, rugby, and netball. This has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have often defined their relations with each another. Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth. Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the adoption of cricket at schools in Rwanda is seen as symbolic of the country's move towards Commonwealth membership."}, {"context": " Besides the Commonwealth Games, other sporting competitions are organised on a Commonwealth basis, through championship tournaments such as the Commonwealth Taekwondo Championships, Commonwealth Fencing Championships, Commonwealth Judo Championships, Commonwealth Rowing Championships, Commonwealth Sailing Championships, Commonwealth Shooting Championships and Commonwealth Pool Lifesaving Championships. The Commonwealth Boxing Council has long maintained Commonwealth titles for the best boxers in the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " The shared history of British presence has produced a substantial body of writing in many languages, known as Commonwealth literature. The Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies, with nine chapters worldwide and an international conference is held every three years. In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annual Commonwealth Writers' Prize \"to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin\". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in the Commonwealth, as well as regional prizes for the best book and best first book from each of four regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious annual Man Booker Prize, one of the highest honours in literature, used to be awarded only to authors from Commonwealth countries or former members such as Ireland and Zimbabwe. Since 2014, however, writers of any nationality have been eligible for the prize providing that they write originally in English and their novels are published by established publishers in the United Kingdom. From 1950 on a significant number of writers from the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations began gaining international recognition, including some who migrated to the United Kingdom. There had been a few important works in English prior to 1950 from the then British Empire. The South African writer Olive Schreiner's famous novel \"The Story of an African Farm\" was published in 1883 and New Zealander Katherine Mansfield published her first collection of short stories, \"In a German Pension\", in 1911. The first major novelist, writing in English, from the Indian sub-continent, R. K. Narayan, began publishing in England in the 1930s, thanks to the encouragement of English novelist Graham Greene. Caribbean writer Jean Rhys's writing career began as early as 1928, though her most famous work, \"Wide Sargasso Sea\", was not published until 1966. South Africa's Alan Paton's famous \"Cry, the Beloved Country\" dates from 1948. Doris Lessing from Southern Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, was a dominant presence in the English literary scene, frequently publishing from 1950 on throughout the 20th century. She won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007."}, {"context": " Salman Rushdie is another post Second World War writer from the former British colonies who permanently settled in Britain. Rushdie achieved fame with \"Midnight's Children\" 1981. His most controversial novel \"The Satanic Verses\" 1989, was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. V. S. Naipaul (born 1932), born in Trinidad, was another immigrant, who wrote among other things \"A Bend in the River\" (1979). Naipaul won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Many other Commonwealth writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English, including Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe, and playwright Wole Soyinka. Soyinka won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986, as did South African novelist Nadine Gordimer in 1995. Other South African writers in English are novelist J.M. Coetzee (Nobel Prize 2003) and playwright Athol Fugard. Kenya's most internationally renowned author is Ng\u0169g\u0129 wa Thiong'o who has written novels, plays and short stories in English. Poet Derek Walcott, from Saint Lucia in the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992. An Australian Patrick White, a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won in 1973. Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poet Les Murray, and novelist Peter Carey, who is one of only four writers to have won the Booker Prize twice."}, {"context": " Due to their shared constitutional histories, several countries in the Commonwealth have similar legal and political systems. The Commonwealth requires its members to be functioning democracies that respect human rights and the rule of law. Most Commonwealth countries have the bicameral Westminster system of parliamentary democracy. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association facilitates co-operation between legislatures across the Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum promotes good governance amongst local government officials. Most Commonwealth members use common law, modelled on English law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the supreme court of 14 Commonwealth members."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. The English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as \"the means of Commonwealth communication\" is a prerequisite for Commonwealth membership. The flag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol of the Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surrounded by emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was designed for the second CHOGM in 1973, and officially adopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorate Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March, having developed separately on different dates from Empire Day celebrations."}, {"context": " In 2009, to mark the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Commonwealth, the Royal Commonwealth Society commissioned a poll of public opinion in seven of the member states: Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. It found that most people in these countries were largely ignorant of the Commonwealth's activities, aside from the Commonwealth Games, and indifferent toward its future. Support for the Commonwealth was twice as high in developing countries as in developed countries; it was lowest in Britain.  Also to mark the 60th anniversary (Diamond Jubilee) of the Commonwealth in 2009, the Commonwealth Secretariat commissioned Paul Carroll to compose \"The Commonwealth Anthem\". The lyrics of the Anthem are taken from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Commonwealth has published the Anthem, performed by the Commonwealth Youth Orchestra, with and without an introductory narrative."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria are the corpus of requirements that members and prospective members must meet to be allowed to participate in the Commonwealth of Nations. The criteria have been altered by a series of documents issued over the past eighty-two years. The most important of these documents were the Statute of Westminster (1931), the London Declaration (1949), the Singapore Declaration (1971), the Harare Declaration (1991), the Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme (1995), the Edinburgh Declaration (1997), and the Kampala Communiqu\u00e9 (2007). New members of the Commonwealth must abide by certain criteria that arose from these documents, the most important of which are the Harare principles and the Edinburgh criteria."}, {"context": " The Harare principles require all members of the Commonwealth, old and new, to abide by certain political principles, including democracy and respect for human rights. These can be enforced upon current members, who may be suspended or expelled for failure to abide by them. To date, Fiji, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe have been suspended on these grounds; Zimbabwe later withdrew. The foremost of the Edinburgh criteria requires new members to have either constitutional or administrative ties to at least one current member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Traditionally, new Commonwealth members had ties to the United Kingdom. The Edinburgh criteria arose from the 1995 accession of Mozambique, at the time the only member that was never part of the British Empire (in whole or part). The Edinburgh criteria have been reviewed, and were revised at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, allowing the admission of Rwanda at the 2009 Meeting."}, {"context": " The formation of the Commonwealth of Nations is dated back to the Statute of Westminster, an Act of the British Parliament passed on 11 December 1931. The Statute established the independence of the Dominions, creating a group of equal members where, previously, there was one (the United Kingdom) paramount. The solitary condition of membership of the embryonic Commonwealth was that a state be a Dominion. Thus, the independence of Pakistan (1947), India (1947), and Sri Lanka (1948) saw the three countries join the Commonwealth as independent states that retained the king as head of state. On the other hand, Burma (1948) and Israel (1948) did not join the Commonwealth, as they chose to become republics. In 1949 the Commonwealth chose to regard Ireland as no longer being a member when Ireland repealed legislation under which the King had played a role in its diplomatic relations with other states, although the Irish government\u2019s view was that Ireland had not been a member for some years."}, {"context": " With India on the verge of promulgating a republican constitution, the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference was dominated by the impending departure of over half of the Commonwealth's population. To avoid such a fate, Canadian Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent proposed that republics be allowed to remain in the Commonwealth, provided that they recognise King George VI as 'Head of the Commonwealth'. Known as the London Declaration, this agreement thus established the only formalised rule as being that members must recognise the Head of the Commonwealth. The arrangement prompted suggestions that other countries, such as France, Israel, and Norway, join. However, until Western Samoa joined in 1970, only recently independent countries would accede."}, {"context": " The first statement of the political values of the Commonwealth of Nations was issued at the 1961 conference, at which the members declared that racial equality would be one of the cornerstones of the new Commonwealth, at a time when the organisation's ranks were being swelled by new African and Caribbean members. The immediate result of this was the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application, which it was required to lodge before becoming a republic, as its government's apartheid policies clearly contradicted the principle."}, {"context": " Further political values and principles of the Commonwealth were affirmed in Singapore on 22 January 1971, at the first Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). The fourteen points clarified the political freedom of its members, and dictated the core principles of the Commonwealth: world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade. However, neither the terms nor the spirit of the Declaration were binding, and several openly flouted it; despite little conformity, only Fiji was ever expelled for breaching these tenets (on 15 October 1987, following the second coup of that year)."}, {"context": " The Harare Declaration, issued on 20 October 1991 in Harare, Zimbabwe, reaffirmed the principles laid out in Singapore, particularly in the light of the ongoing dismantling of apartheid in South Africa. The Declaration put emphasis on human rights and democracy by detailing these principles once more: The Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, issued on 12 November 1995 at the Millbrook Resort, near Queenstown, New Zealand, clarified the Commonwealth's position on the Harare Declaration. The document introduced compulsion upon its members, with strict guidelines to be followed in the event of breaching its rules. These included but were not limited to expulsion from the Commonwealth. Adjudication was left to the newly created Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG)."}, {"context": " At the same CHOGM, the Programme was enforced for the first time, as Nigeria was suspended. On 19 December 1995, the CMAG found that the suspension was in line with the Programme, and also declared its intent on enforcing the Programme in other cases (particularly Sierra Leone and The Gambia). On 29 May 1999, the day after the inauguration of Nigeria's first democratically elected President since the end of military rule, Olus\u1eb9gun \u1eccbasanj\u1ecd, the country's suspension was lifted, on the advice of the CMAG."}, {"context": " In 1995, Mozambique joined the Commonwealth, becoming the first member to have never had a constitutional link with the United Kingdom or another Commonwealth member. Concerns that this would allow open-ended expansion of the Commonwealth and dilute its historic ties prompted the 1995 CHOGM to launch the \"Inter-Governmental Group on Criteria for Commonwealth Membership\", to report at the 1997 CHOGM, to be held in Edinburgh, Scotland. The group decided that, in future, new members would be limited to those with constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member."}, {"context": " In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. They had been prepared for the High Level Appraisal Group set up at the 1989 CHOGM, but not publicly announced until 1997. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must: On the advice of Secretary-General Don McKinnon, the 2005 CHOGM, held in Valletta, Malta, decided to re-examine the Edinburgh criteria. The Committee on Commonwealth Membership reported at the 2007 CHOGM, held in Kampala, Uganda. According to Don McKinnon, the members of the Commonwealth decided in principle to expand the membership of the organisation to include countries without linkages to the Commonwealth, but Eduardo del Buey stated that it would still take some time until the criteria are reformed. Outstanding applications as of the 2007 meeting included former Belgian colony Rwanda (application submitted in 2003 and approved in 2009), the former French colonies of Algeria and Madagascar, and the former British colony of Yemen and condominium of Sudan."}, {"context": " The revised requirements stated that: Rwanda became the 54th nation to join the Commonwealth at the 2009 CHOGM. It became the second country (after Mozambique) not to have any historical ties with the United Kingdom. Rwanda had been a colony of Germany in the 19th century and of Belgium for the first half of the 20th century. Later ties with France were severed during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. President Paul Kagame also accused it of supporting the killings and expelled a number of French organisations from the country. In recent years, English has replaced French as the official language in parts of Rwanda. Prime Minister of Malaysia Najib Tun Razak stated that Rwanda's application \"was boosted by its commitment towards democracy as well as the values espoused by the Commonwealth\". Consideration for its admission was also seen as an \"exceptional circumstance\" by the Commonwealth Secretariat."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Tluchak", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Commonwealth v. Tluchak\", 166 Pa. Super. 16, 70 A.2d 657 (1950). Judge Reno wrote the opinion of the Court. This case involves defendants convicted of larceny. Larceny is a type of theft that is a crime against another's possession rights in a good. In \"Tluchak\" the defendants had sold a farm to another couple. Between the time of sale and the time the purchasers moved in, the defendants took several items that were on the property. In that period, the defendant-sellers were not the legal owners of the property, but they were the legal possessors of it. The Court held that the defendants couldn't be convicted of larceny because they never interfered with the purchasers' possessory interest."}, {"context": " This case not only highlights that element of larceny but also helps show how larceny grew out of criminal trespass. A jury convicted a husband and wife of larceny. The husband's sentence was restitution and a fine of $50; the wife's sentence was suspended. The couple appealed their convictions to the Superior Court of Pennsylvania. The appellants agreed in writing to sell their farm to another couple. When the purchasers moved in they found several things missing that had been on the property at the time of purchase: a commode, washstand, hay carriage, electric stove cord, and 30-35 peach trees. The sale agreement did not cover personal property, but did cover: \"All buildings, plumbing, heating, lighting fixtures, screens, storm sash, shades, blinds, awnings, shrubbery and plants.\" The purchasers also claimed there was an oral agreement that included the missing items not covered by the written sale agreement, though the appellants denied this. The Commonwealth charged larceny for all the missing items."}, {"context": " Though the appellants argued that there was insufficient evidence to support a conviction because the contract didn't cover the items listed in the indictment, the Court assumed a sale had occurred. Larceny is a crime of criminal trespass on the possessory rights of another. A person lawfully possessing another's property who converts the property to his own use, or otherwise deprives the owner of its use cannot be guilty of larceny because he lawfully received the property; the possessor, however, could be guilty of fraudulent conversion."}, {"context": " Even if the appellants had sold the property when they sold the farm, they would still have been in legal possession of the property until the purchasers had taken lawful possession\u2014i.e. moved into the farm. Therefore, they could not be guilty of larceny, because they legally possessed the property. While they might be guilty of fraudulent conversion or larceny by bailee, the prosecution did not charge those crimes. The Court reversed the judgments and sentences below and discharged the defendants."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of Poland", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Poland may refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of World Citizens", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of World Citizens (later named 'Mondcivitan Republic' after the Esperanto) was founded by Hugh J. Schonfield, an associate of H.G. Wells, in 1956. The organisation describes itself as a servant-Nation. Hugh Schonfield was a biblical scholar, who was later best known for his book \"The Passover Plot.\" Schonfield first felt the need for an organisation for the service of all nations as far back as 1938. From 1938 to 1950 Schonfield examined various aspects of the project, including questions of international law. Schonfield came up with the idea of a body of persons from different countries which would have relations with the governments of other countries, without that organisation holding any territory itself. When the United Nations was formed, Schonfield wrote to the Secretary-General and to all the states party to the charter of his desire to form his Mondcivitan Republic."}, {"context": " In the summer of 1951, a General Assembly of the organisation's members was held in Paris, which appointed a Secretariat as the acting administration with offices in London. By 1952 the organisation had members in 14 countries, by 1954 in 25 countries and by 1955 in 30 countries. The second General Assembly in 1953 set up a commission to draft the text of the constitution of the organisation. Following amendments at the third General Assembly in 1955, the organisation's provisional Constitution was approved for adoption. In the same year humanitarian activities were initiated by the creation of the World Service Trust as a specialised agency of the organisation."}, {"context": " Caresse Crosby merged her group with the Commonwealth of World Citizens. The organisation arose from the need felt by members throughout the world to give organic expression to the idea of the fundamental unity of the human race by developing a common way of life and government, which experimentally would be a preparation by example for a co-operative World community embracing all peoples. The organisation was to consist of all its members at any given time, without regard for colour or ethnic origin. In its political expression it was a free and self-governing organisation and \"world community\"."}, {"context": " The new organisation expressed the goal of world unity and human fraternity. The idea was that the organisation should advocate for international reconciliation and the resolution of international problems and conflicts. The loyalty it demanded was higher than that given to any state, requiring in the individual full dedication to the principles and purposes of the new nation, yet at the initial stage without forfeiting state citizenship. For the members, state citizenship was to be always secondary to membership within the organisation. Any member was expected to be primarily concerned with the affairs and policies of the organisation. Taking part in war, aggression of oppression was strictly prohibited and the member was supposed to be prepared to suffer the penalties. All members were expected to live and abide by a set of seven principles:"}, {"context": " With members in 33 countries it was decided in 1956 that the \"Mondcivitan Republic\" should be proclaimed in being \"de facto\" and that all governments should be advised accordingly and furnished with a copy of the constitution. A Constituent Assembly of the organisation's members was convened at the Temple of Peace, Cardiff, headquarters of the United Nations Association in Wales. The organisation's constitution was adopted on August 29 and the flag of the organisation hoisted over the building. A council was elected to prepare the way for parliamentary government."}, {"context": " In 1958 a democratic election was held giving opportunity to all members in the countries where they resided to elect deputies to the first parliament which met in Vienna in May 1959. Up to this time the organisation had used the title, \"Commonwealth of World Citizens\" which was abandoned in favour of \"The Mondcivitan Republic\". Hugh Schonfield, the pioneer of the enterprise, was elected acting president and the organisation chose an executive committee headed by a young member, Donald Hanby who was referred to as the \"prime minister\"."}, {"context": " In 1963, the organisation held its second \"parliament\". The term of this body was to be for five years. In accordance with the constitution, a presidium of five was elected under the name of the Supreme Council, each member of which would hold the office of president for one year in turn. Those elected, in the order of their presidency, were Frieda Bacon, Justo Priesto, Nguyen-Huu, Anthony Brooke and Hugh J. Schonfield, the last named to take office at the end of August 1967. The post of \"prime minister\" was relinquished and replaced under the constitution with that of \"commissioner-general\" and Donald Hanby was elected to that office."}, {"context": " At this time, the International Arbitration League, founded at the beginning of the 20th century by the Nobel Peace Prize winner, Sir William Randal Cremer, decided that its work could best be continued by the \"Mondcivitan Republic\" and the two organisations fused. The work of the World Service Trust continued and a housing agency, the Cremer Housing Association, was formed, which later provided new premises for use by the organisation. In 1971, the provisional constitution was suspended to make way for formulating a full constitution. To enable the organisation to ensure the best means of governance, an executive council was appointed to take full responsibility for the organisation's affairs in the interim period. It was hoped that a full constitution and self-government could be achieved by 1975, but this did not happen."}, {"context": " In 1972 Hugh Schonfield's book about the fundamental ideas behind the organisation, The \"Politics of God,\" was published and received much interest, particularly because it had been preceded by the best-selling The Passover Plot, which had created much discussion and aroused interest in the concept of Messianism. The Community school project was started as an experiment by the organisation's membership. It was intended to provide a viable alternative to the prevalent educational concepts, with primary aim to give each child freedom, experience, resources and love. It was believed that this should take place in, and be directly concerned with, the community as a whole, encouraging children to take an active interest in serving and changing the community for the betterment of the whole of mankind. Various methods of achieving these aims were implemented. The school was supported by donations from members and charged no fees. Many of the children were \"problem\" children from the neighbourhood of the school who went on to lead productive lives."}, {"context": " The World Service Trust was founded in 1955 as a special agency of the organisation for the purpose of giving impartial aid to people and countries in circumstances of poverty, famine, disease and epidemics, as well as natural disasters. The secondary organisation was also designed to assist education and improve standards of living. In 1990 the secondary organisation became a foundation and was renamed \"The Hugh and Helene Schonfield World Service Trust\". The Schonfields contributed to it financially."}, {"context": " The organisation fell into decline following the 1980s. Its archives are now deposited with the Bishopsgate Institute in London. Its activities became more centred in Germany as the community initiated by Wilhelm Haller felt a more decentralised and less bureaucratic approach was necessary. A new initiative was started in 2004 with the founding of the 'International Leadership and Business Society', intended to encourage the application of the original Mondcivitan principles in business and everyday life. The Hugh & Helene Schonfield World Service Trust continued to work particularly with its responsibility for the archiving and publicising of the work of the late Hugh J. Schonfield and research into the concepts of Messianism, Humanitism and \"Servant-Nationhood\" and methods to find their practical realisation.  In 2014 a revival of the movement was started in an attempt to find a current interpretation. This has led to the establishment of a Facebook page. More information is available at:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of the Bahamas Trade Union Congress", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of the Bahamas Trade Union Congress is a central trade union federation in The Bahamas. Leadership:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Public School System (CNMI PSS) is a school district serving the Northern Mariana Islands, a United States territory. Rota Tinian Saipan Saipan Saipan Rota Tinian Saipan: Previously the system operated an elementary school on Pagan, Northern Islands Municipality, prior to the 1981 eruptions. In 1977 the school had 13 students. Students from Pagan attending secondary school did so on Saipan."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth of the Philippines", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commonwealth of the Philippines (; ) was the administrative body that governed the Philippines from 1935 to 1946, aside from a period of exile in the Second World War from 1942 to 1945 when Japan occupied the country. It replaced the Insular Government, a United States territorial government, and was established by the Tydings\u2013McDuffie Act. The Commonwealth was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence. During its more than a decade of existence, the Commonwealth had a strong executive and a Supreme Court. Its legislature, dominated by the Nacionalista Party, was at first unicameral, but later bicameral. In 1937, the government selected Tagalog \u2013 the language of Manila and its surrounding provinces \u2013 as the basis of the national language, although it would be many years before its usage became general. Women's suffrage was adopted and the economy recovered to its pre-Depression level before the Japanese occupation in 1942."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth government went into exile from 1942 to 1945, when the Philippines was under Japanese occupation. In 1946, the Commonwealth ended and the Philippines claimed full sovereignty as provided for in Article XVIII of the 1935 Constitution. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was also known as the \"Philippine Commonwealth\", or simply as \"the Commonwealth\". It had official names in () and (). The 1935 constitution specifies \"the Philippines\" as the country's short form name and uses \"the Philippine Islands\" only to refer to pre-1935 status and institutions. Under the Insular Government (1901\u20131935), both terms had official status."}, {"context": " The pre-1935 U.S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by the president of the United States. In December 1932, the U.S. Congress passed the Hare\u2013Hawes\u2013Cutting Act with the premise of granting Filipinos independence. Provisions of the bill included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. When it reached him for possible signature, President Herbert Hoover vetoed the Hare\u2013Hawes\u2013Cutting Act, but the American Congress overrode Hoover's veto in 1933 and passed the bill over Hoover's objections. The bill, however, was opposed by the then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was also rejected by the Philippine Senate."}, {"context": " This led to the creation and passing of a new bill known as Tydings\u2013McDuffie Act, or Philippine Independence Act, which allowed the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a ten-year period of peaceful transition to full independence \u2013 the date of which was to be on the 4th July following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935."}, {"context": " On 17 September 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the \"Iglesia Filipina Independiente\" leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osme\u00f1a of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people."}, {"context": " The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence. These included national defense (such as the National Defense Act of 1935, which organized a conscription for service in the country), greater control over the economy, the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of Mindanao. However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, in the level of U.S. commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines, and in the economy due to the Great Depression, proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osme\u00f1a and Quezon, especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term."}, {"context": " A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II. Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines on December 8, 1941. The Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U.S. Army Forces Far East, which would resist Japanese occupation. Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. Meanwhile, battles against the Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula, Corregidor, and Leyte until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces in May 1942."}, {"context": " Quezon and Osme\u00f1a were escorted by troops from Manila to Corregidor, and later left for Australia prior to going to the U.S., where they set up a government in exile, based at the Shoreham Hotel, in Washington, D.C. This government participated in the Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations. Quezon became ill with tuberculosis and died from it, with Osme\u00f1a succeeding him as president. The main general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army (PCA), located on the military station in Ermita, Manila, was closed down on December 24, 1941. Upon arrival of the Japanese Imperial forces which occupied Manila on January 2, 1942, the defunct PCA main headquarters in the capital city was occupied as the Japanese assumed control. Subsequent to commencement of the Japanese occupation, from January 3, 1942 to June 30, 1946, during and after the Second World War, the general headquarters and military camps and bases of the PCA military stations in the main provinces of the Philippine Archipelago from Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao were openly under control of the PCA service and began local military conflicts and to engage operations against the Japanese Occupation in this country."}, {"context": " Meanwhile, the Japanese military organized a new government in the Philippines known as the Second Philippine Republic, headed by president Jos\u00e9 P. Laurel. This pro-Japanese government became very unpopular. Resistance to the Japanese occupation continued in the Philippines. This included the \"Hukbalahap\" (\"People's Army Against the Japanese\"), which consisted of 30,000 armed men and controlled much of Central Luzon. Remnants of the Philippine Army also successfully fought the Japanese through guerrilla warfare, eventually liberating all but 12 of the 48 provinces."}, {"context": " General Douglas MacArthur's army landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944, and were welcomed as liberators, as were the Philippine Commonwealth troops who arrived in other amphibious landings. The Philippine Constabulary was placed on active service with the Philippine Commonwealth Army and re-established on October 28, 1944 to June 30, 1946 during the Allied liberation to Post-World War II era. Fighting continued in remote corners of the Philippines until Japan's surrender in August 1945, which was signed on September 2 in Tokyo Bay. Estimates of Filipino war dead reached one million, and Manila was extensively damaged when Japanese marines refused to vacate the city when ordered to do so by the Japanese High Command."}, {"context": " After the War in the Philippines the Commonwealth was restored and a one-year transitional period in preparation for independence began. Elections followed in April 1946 with Manuel Roxas winning as the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines and Elpidio Quirino winning as vice-president. In spite of the years of Japanese occupation, the Philippines became independent exactly as scheduled a decade before, on July 4, 1946. The Commonwealth ended when the U.S. recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the economy remained dependent on the U.S. This was due to the Bell Trade Act, otherwise known as the Philippine Trade Act, which was a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States."}, {"context": " At the time, tenant farmers held grievances often rooted to debt caused by the sharecropping system, as well as by the dramatic increase in population, which added economic pressure to the tenant farmers' families. As a result, an agrarian reform program was initiated by the Commonwealth. However, success of the program was hampered by ongoing clashes between tenants and landowners. An example of these clashes includes one initiated by Benigno Ramos through his \"Sakdalista\" movement, which advocated tax reductions, land reforms, the breakup of the large estates or \"haciendas\", and the severing of American ties. The uprising, which occurred in Central Luzon in May, 1935, claimed about a hundred lives."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth had two official languages; Spanish, and English. Due to the diverse number of Philippine languages, a program for the \"development and adoption of a common national language based on the existing native dialects\" was drafted in the 1935 Constitution. The Commonwealth created the \"Suri\u00e1n ng Wikang Pambans\u00e0\" (National Language Institute), which was initially composed of President Quezon and six other members from various ethnic groups. A deliberation was held and Tagalog, due to its extensive literary tradition, was selected as the basis for the \"national language\" to be called \"Pilipino\"."}, {"context": " In 1940, the Commonwealth authorized the creation of a dictionary and grammar book for the language. In that same year, Commonwealth Act 570 was passed, allowing Filipino to become an official language upon independence. The cash economy of the Commonwealth was mostly agriculture-based. Products included abaca, coconuts and coconut oil, sugar, and timber. Numerous other crops and livestock were grown for local consumption by the Filipino people. Other sources for foreign income included the spin-off from money spent at American military bases on the Philippines such as the naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air Base (with U.S. Army airplanes there as early as 1919), both on the island of Luzon."}, {"context": " The performance of the economy was initially good despite challenges from various agrarian uprisings. Taxes collected from a robust coconut industry helped boost the economy by funding infrastructure and other development projects. However, growth was halted due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1939, a census of the Philippines was taken and determined that it had a population of 16,000,303; of these 15.7 million were counted as \"Brown\", 141.8 thousand as \"Yellow\", 19.3 thousand as \"White\", 29.1 thousand as \"Negro\", 50.5 thousand as \"Mixed\", and under 1 thousand \"Other\". In 1941, the estimated population of the Philippines reached 17,000,000; there were 117,000 Chinese, 30,000 Japanese, and 9,000 Americans. English was spoken by 26.3% of the population, according to the 1939 Census. Spanish, after English overtook it beginning in the 1920s, became a language for the elite and in government; it was later banned during the Japanese occupation."}, {"context": " Estimated numbers of speakers of the dominant languages: The Commonwealth had its own constitution, which remained effective until 1973, and was self-governing although foreign policy and military affairs would be under the responsibility of the United States, and Laws passed by the legislature affecting immigration, foreign trade, and the currency system had to be approved by the United States president.. During the 1935\u201341 period, the Commonwealth of the Philippines featured a very strong executive, a unicameral National Assembly, and a Supreme Court, all composed entirely of Filipinos, as well as an elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives (as Puerto Rico does today). An American High Commissioner and an American Military Advisor, Douglas MacArthur headed the latter office from 1937 until the advent of World War II in 1941, holding the military rank of Field Marshal of the Philippines. After 1946, the rank of field marshal disappeared from the Philippine military."}, {"context": " During 1939 and 1940, after an amendment in the Commonwealth's Constitution, a bicameral Congress, consisting of a Senate, and of a House of Representatives, was restored, replacing the National Assembly. The colors indicate the political party or coalition of each President at Election Day. In 1935 Quezon won the Philippines' first national presidential election under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He obtained nearly 68% of the vote against his two main rivals, Emilio Aguinaldo and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay. Quezon was inaugurated in November 1935. He is recognized as the second President of the Philippines. When Manuel L. Quezon was inaugurated President of the Philippines in 1935, he became the first Filipino to head a government of the Philippines since Emilio Aguinaldo and the Malolos Republic in 1898. However, in January 2008, Congressman Rodolfo Valencia of Oriental Mindoro filed a bill seeking instead to declare General Miguel Malvar as the second Philippine President, having directly succeeded Aguinaldo in 1901."}, {"context": " Quezon had originally been barred by the Philippine constitution from seeking re-election. However, in 1940, constitutional amendments were ratified allowing him to seek re-election for a fresh term ending in 1943. In the 1941 presidential elections, Quezon was re-elected over former Senator Juan Sumulong with nearly 82% of the vote. In a notable humanitarian act, Quezon, in cooperation with U.S. High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, facilitated the entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe. Quezon was also instrumental in promoting a project to resettle the refugees in Mindanao."}, {"context": " Quezon suffered from tuberculosis and spent his last years in a 'cure cottage' in Saranac Lake, NY, where he died on August 1, 1944. He was initially buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His body was later carried by the and re-interred in Manila at the Manila North Cemetery before being moved to Quezon City within the monument at the Quezon Memorial Circle. Osme\u00f1a became president of the Commonwealth on Quezon's death in 1944. He returned to the Philippines the same year with General Douglas MacArthur and the liberation forces. After the war Osme\u00f1a restored the Commonwealth government and the various executive departments. He continued the fight for Philippine independence."}, {"context": " For the presidential election of 1946 Osme\u00f1a refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew of his record of 40 years of honest and faithful service. Nevertheless, he was defeated by Manuel Roxas, who won 54% of the vote and became the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. Roxas served as the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in a brief period, from his subsequent election on May 28, 1946 to July 4, 1946, the scheduled date of the proclamation of Philippine Independence. Roxas prepared the groundwork for the advent of a free and independent Philippines, assisted by the Congress (reorganized May 25, 1946), with Senator Jos\u00e9 Avelino as the Senate President and Congressman Eugenio P\u00e9rez as the House of Representatives Speaker. On June 3, 1946, Roxas appeared for the first time before the joint session of the Congress to deliver his first state of the nation address. Among other things, he told the members of the Congress the grave problems and difficulties the Philippines were set to face and reported on his special trip to the U.S. \u2014 the approval for independence.  On June 21, he reappeared in another joint session of the Congress and urged the acceptance of two important laws passed by the U.S. Congress on April 30, 1946 regarding the Philippine lands. They are the Philippine Rehabilitation Act and the Philippine Trade Act. Both recommendations were accepted by the Congress."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth realm", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in which Queen Elizabeth II is the reigning constitutional monarch and head of state. Each realm is independent from the other realms. As of 2018, there are 16 Commonwealth realms: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and the United Kingdom. All 16 Commonwealth realms are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states. Elizabeth II is Head of the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " In 1952, Britain's proclamation of Elizabeth II's accession used the term \"Realms\" to describe the seven sovereign states of which she was queen\u2014the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon. Since then, new realms have been created through independence of former colonies and dependencies and some realms have become republics. There are 16 Commonwealth realms currently with a combined area (excluding Antarctic claims) of 18.7\u00a0million km (7.2\u00a0million mi) and a population of 144\u00a0million, of which all but about two million live in the six most populous: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and Jamaica."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth realms are, for purposes of international relations, sovereign states. They are united only in their voluntary connection with the institution of the monarchy, the succession, and the Queen herself; the person of the sovereign and the Crown were said in 1936 to be \"the most important and vital link\" between the realms. Political scientist Peter Boyce called this grouping of countries associated in this manner, \"an achievement without parallel in the history of international relations or constitutional law.\" Terms such as \"personal union\", a \"form of personal union\", and \"shared monarchy\", among others, have all been advanced as definitions since the beginning of the Commonwealth itself, though there has been no agreement on which term is most accurate, or even whether \"personal union\" is applicable at all."}, {"context": " Since the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the realms have been considered \"equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown.\" and the monarch is \"equally, officially, and explicitly [monarch] of separate, autonomous realms.\" Andrew Michie wrote in 1952 \"Elizabeth II embodies in her own person many monarchies: she is Queen of Great Britain, but she is equally Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ceylon... it is now possible for Elizabeth II to be, in practice as well as theory, equally Queen in all her realms.\" Still, Boyce holds the counter-opinion the crowns of all the non-British realms are \"derivative, if not subordinate\" to the crown of the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom no longer possesses any legislative power over any country besides itself, although some countries continue to use, by their own volition, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as part of their own judiciary; usually as the highest court of appeal."}, {"context": " Since each realm has the same person as its monarch, the diplomatic practice of exchanging ambassadors with letters of credence and recall from one head of state to another is redundant. Diplomatic relations between the Commonwealth realms are thus at a cabinet level only and high commissioners are exchanged between realms (though all other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations also follow this same practice, but for traditional reasons). A high commissioner's full title will thus be \"High Commissioner for Her Majesty's Government in [Country]\". For certain ceremonies, the order of precedence for the realms' high commissioners or national flags is set according to the chronological order of, first, when the country became a Dominion and then the date on which the country gained independence."}, {"context": " Conflicts of interest have arisen from this relationship amongst independent states, ranging from minor diplomatic matters\u2014such as the monarch expressing on the advice of one of her cabinets views that counter those of another of her cabinets\u2014to more serious conflicts regarding matters of armed conflict, wherein the monarch, as head of state of two different realms, may be simultaneously at war and at peace with a third country, or even at war with herself as head of two hostile nations. In such cases, viceroys have tended to avoid placing the sovereign directly in the centre of the conflict, meaning that a governor-general may have to take controversial actions entirely on his or her own initiative through the exercise of the reserve powers."}, {"context": " In recent years, advocates have argued for free movement of citizens among a subset of the Commonwealth realms: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, which they argue \"share the same head of state, the same native language, [and] the same respect for the common law.\" Opinion on the prospect of the plan coming to fruition is mixed. British Eurosceptics (those critical of the European Union) have expressed a preference for a relationship \"similar in nature and goals to the EU\" between the same four countries: the CANZUK Union without repeating the \"mistakes of Europe\"\u2014though this possibility has also been characterised as \"difficult and in some ways far-fetched\". Despite this, public opinion polling conducted by organisations such as CANZUK International and YouGov have indicated widespread support for free movement of goods and people across Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, with support for the proposals ranging from between 58\u201364% in the United Kingdom, 70\u201372% in Australia, 75\u201377% in Canada and 81\u201382% in New Zealand."}, {"context": " The evolution of the Commonwealth realms has resulted in the Crown having both a shared and a separate character, with the one individual being equally monarch of each state and acting as such in right of a particular realm as a distinct legal person guided only by the advice of the cabinet of that jurisdiction. This means that in different contexts the term \"Crown\" may refer to the extra-national institution associating all 16 countries, or to the Crown in each realm considered separately. However, though the monarchy is therefore no longer an exclusively British institution, having become \"domesticated\" in each of the realms, it may in the media and legal fields often still be elaborated as the \"British Crown\" for reasons historical, of convenience, or political, regardless of the different, specific, and official national titles and terms used when addressing the Queen of the citizenry in each jurisdiction. For example, in Barbados the Queen is titled as \"Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados\", or simply the \"Queen of Barbados\", with her full title making mention of her position as queen of the other Commonwealth realms."}, {"context": " From a cultural standpoint, the sovereign's name and image and other royal symbols unique to each nation are visible in the emblems and insignia of governmental institutions and militia. The Queen's effigy, for example, appears on coins and banknotes in some countries, and an oath of allegiance to the Queen is usually required from politicians, judges, military members and new citizens. By 1959, it was being asserted by Buckingham Palace officials that the Queen was \"equally at home in all her realms.\""}, {"context": " To guarantee the continuity of multiple states sharing the same person as monarch, the preamble of the Statute of Westminster 1931 laid out a convention that any alteration to the line of succession in any one country must be voluntarily approved by the parliaments of all the realms. This convention was first applied in 1936 when the British government conferred with the Dominion governments during the Edward VIII abdication crisis. Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King pointed out that the Statute of Westminster required Canada's request and consent to any legislation passed by the British parliament before it could become part of Canada's laws and affect the line of succession in Canada. Sir Maurice Gwyer, first parliamentary counsel in the UK, reflected this position, stating that the Act of Settlement was a part of the law in each Dominion. Though today the Statute of Westminster is law only in Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom, the convention of approval from the other realms was reasserted by the Perth Agreement of 2011, in which all 16 countries agreed in principle to change the succession rule to absolute primogeniture, to remove the restriction on the monarch being married to a Catholic, and to reduce the number of members of the Royal Family who need the monarch's permission to marry. These changes came into effect on 26 March 2015. Alternatively, a Commonwealth realm may choose to cease being such by making its throne the inheritance of a different royal house or by becoming a republic, actions to which, though they alter the country's royal succession, the convention does not apply."}, {"context": " Agreement among the realms does not, however, mean the succession laws cannot diverge. During the abdication crisis in 1936, the United Kingdom passed His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act with the approval of the parliament of Australia and the governments of the remaining Dominions. (Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa gave parliamentary assent later.) The Act effected Edward's abdication in the United Kingdom on 11 December; as the Canadian government had requested and consented to the Act becoming part of Canadian law, and Australia and New Zealand had then not yet adopted the Statute of Westminster, the abdication took place in those countries on the same day. The parliament of South Africa, however, passed its own legislation\u2014His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937\u2014which backdated the abdication there to 10 December. The Irish Free State recognised the king's abdication with the Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936 on 12 December. According to Anne Twomey, this demonstrated \"the divisibility of the Crown in the personal, as well as the political, sense.\" For E H Coghill, writing as early as 1937, it proved that the convention of a common line of succession \"is not of imperative force\". and Kenneth John Scott asserted in 1962 that it ended the \"convention that statutory uniformity on these subjects would be maintained in the parts of the Commonwealth that continued to owe allegiance to the Crown\"."}, {"context": " Today, some realms govern succession by their own domestic laws, while others, either by written clauses in their constitution or by convention, stipulate that whoever is monarch of the United Kingdom is automatically also monarch of that realm. It is generally agreed that any unilateral alteration of succession by the UK would not have effect in all the realms. Following the accession of George VI to the throne, the United Kingdom created legislation that provided for a regency in the event that the monarch was not of age or incapacitated. Though input was sought from the Dominions on this matter, all declined to make themselves bound by the British legislation, feeling instead that the governors-general could carry out royal functions in place of a debilitated or underage sovereign. Tuvalu later incorporated this principle into its constitution. New Zealand included in its Constitution Act 1986 a clause specifying that, should a regent be installed in the United Kingdom, that individual would carry out the functions of the monarch of New Zealand."}, {"context": " The monarch holds the highest position in each Commonwealth realm and may perform such functions as issuing executive orders, commanding the military forces, and creating and administering laws. However, each country now operates under the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy and the concept of responsible government, meaning that the monarch by convention exercises her powers on the advice of her Crown ministers, who are usually drawn from, and thus responsible to, the elected chamber of the relevant parliament. In some realms, such as Papua New Guinea, these conventions are codified in constitutional law."}, {"context": " The sovereign resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the United Kingdom, and thus carries out her duties there mostly in person. The Queen appoints viceroys to perform most of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties on her behalf in the other realms: in each, a governor-general as her personal national representative, as well as a governor as her representative in each of the Australian states. These appointments are all made on the advice of the prime minister of the country or the premier of the state concerned, though this process may have additional requirements. In certain other cases, the extent of which varies from realm to realm, specific additional powers are reserved exclusively for the monarch\u2014such as the appointment of extra senators to the Canadian Senate, the creation of honours, or the issuance of letters patent\u2014and on occasions of national importance, the Queen may be advised to perform in person her constitutional duties, such as granting Royal Assent or issuing a royal proclamation. Otherwise, all royal powers, including the Royal Prerogative, are carried out on behalf of the sovereign by the relevant viceroy, who, apart from those already mentioned, include a lieutenant governor in each province of Canada (appointed by the Governor General of Canada). In the United Kingdom, the Queen appoints Counsellors of State to perform her constitutional duties in her absence."}, {"context": " Similarly, the monarch will perform ceremonial duties in the Commonwealth realms to mark historically significant events. He or she does so most frequently in the United Kingdom and, in the other countries, during tours at least once every five or six years, meaning the Queen is present in a number of her dominions outside the UK, or acting on behalf of those realms abroad, approximately every other year. For this work, the sovereign receives no salary from any state; instead, only the expenses incurred for each event (security, transportation, venue, etc.) are, due to the nature of the Crown in the realms, funded by the relevant state individually through the ordinary legislative budgeting process and, if called for, by the organisation that invited the sovereign's attendance. These engagements are organised in order for the Crown to honour, encourage, and learn about the achievements or endeavours of individuals, institutions, and enterprises in a variety of areas of the lives of the Queen's subjects."}, {"context": " Citizens in Commonwealth realms may request birthday or wedding anniversary messages to be sent from the sovereign. This is available for 100th, 105th, and beyond for birthdays; and 60th (\"Diamond\"), 65th, 70th (\"Platinum\"), and beyond for wedding anniversaries. The monarch, in the form of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acts as the court of highest appeal in some but not all realms (and also, by agreement, for certain other former colonies which are not realms). The sovereign's religious role differs from country to country. In all realms except Papua New Guinea, the Queen is sovereign \"by the Grace of God\", a phrase that forms a part of her official title within those states. In Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand, \"Defender of the Faith\" (in Latin: \"fidei defensor\")\u2014the ancient phrase first granted in 1521 by Pope Leo X to King Henry VIII\u2014is also included as a part of the royal title and the sovereign is anointed as such in the only coronation that takes place in any of the realms, a ceremony in the context of a church service imbued with theological and constitutional symbolism and meaning, held at Westminster Abbey in London, United Kingdom."}, {"context": " However, it is solely in the United Kingdom that the Queen actually plays a role in organised religion. In England, she acts as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England and appoints its bishops and archbishops who thereafter act as her Lords Spiritual. In Scotland, she swears an oath to uphold and protect the Church of Scotland and sends to meetings of the church's General Assembly a Lord High Commissioner as her representative, when she is not personally in attendance. There is no strict legal or formal definition of who is or is not a member of the royal family. The group is loosely defined as the extended family of the monarch who, either as representatives of the monarch or as part of their own charitable endeavours, perform public duties at events throughout the 16 realms each year. Events are funded in the same way as the monarch's ceremonial roles, and are formally recorded in the Court Circular. Members of the royal family draw enormous media coverage in the form of photographic, written, and televised commentary on not only their activities and public roles, but also family relationships, rites of passage, personalities, attire, and behaviour."}, {"context": " The Queen employs various royal standards to mark her presence, the particular one used depending on which realm she is in or acting on behalf of at the time. There are currently unique flags for Australia, Barbados, Canada, Jamaica, New Zealand, and two variations for the United Kingdom\u2014one for Scotland and another for the rest of the country. All are heraldic banners displaying the shield of the sovereign's coat of arms for that state, and each, save for those of the UK, are defaced in the centre with the Queen's Personal Flag, a crowned \"E\" for \"Elizabeth\" surrounded by a garland of roses representing the countries of the Commonwealth. This latter flag on its own is used for realms that do not have a unique personal standard for the monarch, as well as for general use in representing the Queen as Head of the Commonwealth. The monarch previously held royal standards for Sierra Leone, Mauritius, Malta, and Trinidad and Tobago, but these banners became obsolete when the countries became republics."}, {"context": " Other members of the Royal Family have their own personal standards. In the United Kingdom, most have their own distinctive banner or banners. The Prince of Wales, Duke of Cambridge, Princess Royal, Duke of York, and Earl of Wessex also have one each for Canada, and the remaining members of the Royal Family use a specific ermine-bordered banner of the Canadian royal arms. Those who do not possess a standard for an individual realm other than the UK will use their British standard to identify themselves when touring other Commonwealth realms and foreign countries."}, {"context": " The governors-general throughout the Commonwealth realms also each use a personal flag, which, like that of the sovereign, passes to each successive occupant of the office. Most feature a lion passant atop a St. Edward's royal crown with the name of the country across a scroll underneath, all on a blue background. The two exceptions are those of, since 1981, Canada (bearing on a blue background the crest of the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada) and, since 2008, New Zealand (a St. Edward's Crown above the shield of the Coat of Arms of New Zealand). The lieutenant governors of the Canadian provinces each have their own personal standards, as do the governors of the Australian states."}, {"context": " The possibility that a colony within the British Empire might become a new kingdom was first mooted in the 1860s, when it was proposed that the British North American territories of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada unite as a confederation that might be known as the \"Kingdom of Canada\". In light of geo-political circumstances at the time, however, the name was abandoned in favour of the \"Dominion of Canada\". As more British colonies followed Canada in gaining legislative independence from the United Kingdom, Prime Minister of Canada Sir Wilfrid Laurier insisted at the 1907 Imperial Conference that a formula be created to differentiate between the Crown and the self-governing colonies. For the latter the Canadian precedent was followed, and the term \"Dominion\" was extended to apply to Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, and the colonies of the Cape, Natal, and Transvaal, before and after they merged in 1910 with the Orange River Colony to form the Union of South Africa. These countries were joined by the Irish Free State in December 1922, as part of the Anglo-Irish Treaty."}, {"context": " Although the Dominions were capable of governing themselves internally, they technically remained\u2014especially in regard to foreign policy and defence\u2014subject to British authority, wherein the governor-general of each Dominion represented the British monarch-in-Council reigning over these territories as a single imperial domain. It was commonly held in some circles that the Crown was a monolithic element throughout all the monarch's territories; A.H. Lefroy wrote in 1918 that \"the Crown is to be considered as one and indivisible throughout the Empire; and cannot be severed into as many kingships as there are Dominions, and self-governing colonies.\" This unitary model began to erode, however, when the Dominions gained more international prominence as a result of their participation and sacrifice in the First World War, in 1919 prompting Canadian prime minister Sir Robert Borden and South African minister of defence Jan Smuts to demand that the Dominions be given at the Versailles Conference full recognition as \"autonomous nations of an Imperial Commonwealth.\" The immediate result was that, though the King signed as High Contracting Party for the empire as a whole, the Dominions were also separate signatories to the Treaty of Versailles, as well as, together with India, founding members of the League of Nations. In 1921 the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George stated that the \"British Dominions have now been accepted fully into the community of nations.\""}, {"context": " The pace of independence increased in the 1920s, led by Canada, which exchanged envoys with the United States in 1920 and concluded the Halibut Fisheries Treaty in its own right in 1923. In the Chanak crisis of 1922, the Canadian government insisted that its course of action would be determined by the Canadian parliament, not the British government, and, by 1925, the Dominions felt confident enough to refuse to be bound by Britain's adherence to the Treaty of Locarno. These developments, combined with a realisation that the Crown was already operating distinctly and separately within each of the jurisdictions of the Canadian provinces and Australian states, appeared to put to rest previous assertions that the Crown could never be divided amongst the Dominions."}, {"context": " Another catalyst for change came in 1926, when Field Marshal the Lord Byng of Vimy, then Governor General of Canada, refused the advice of his prime minister (William Lyon Mackenzie King) in what came to be known colloquially as the King\u2013Byng Affair. Mackenzie King, after resigning and then being reappointed as prime minister some months later, pushed at the Imperial Conference of 1926 for a reorganisation of the way the Dominions related to the British government, resulting in the Balfour Declaration, which declared formally that the Dominions were fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom. What this meant in practice was not at the time worked out; conflicting views existed, some in the United Kingdom not wishing to see a fracturing of the sacred unity of the Crown throughout the empire, and some in the Dominions not wishing to see their jurisdiction have to take on the full brunt of diplomatic and military responsibilities."}, {"context": " What did follow was that the Dominion governments gained an equal status with the United Kingdom, a separate and direct relationship with the monarch, without the British Cabinet acting as an intermediary, and the governors-general now acted solely as a personal representative of the sovereign in right of that Dominion. Though no formal mechanism for tendering advice to the monarch had yet been established\u2014former Prime Minister of Australia William Morris Hughes theorised that the Dominion cabinets would provide informal direction and the British Cabinet would offer formal advice\u2014the concepts were first put into legal practice with the passage in 1927 of the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act, which implicitly recognised the Irish Free State as separate from the UK, and the King as king \"of\" each Dominion uniquely, rather than as the British king \"in\" each Dominion. At the same time, terminology in foreign relations was altered to demonstrate the independent status of the Dominions, such as the dropping of the term \"Britannic\" from the King's style outside of the United Kingdom. Then, in 1930 George V's Australian ministers employed a practice adopted by resolution at that year's Imperial Conference, directly advising the King to appoint Sir Isaac Isaacs as his Australian governor-general, against the preferences of the British government and the King himself."}, {"context": " These new developments were explicitly codified in 1931 with the passage of the Statute of Westminster, through which Canada, the Union of South Africa, and the Irish Free State all immediately obtained formal legislative independence from the UK, while in the other Dominions adoption of the statute was subject to ratification by the Dominion's parliament. Australia and New Zealand did so in 1942 and 1947, respectively, with the former's ratification back-dated to 1939, while Newfoundland never ratified the bill and reverted to direct British rule in 1934. As a result, the parliament at Westminster was unable to legislate for any Dominion unless requested to do so, although the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was left available as the last court of appeal for some Dominions. Specific attention was given in the statute's preamble to royal succession, outlining that no changes to that line could be made by the parliament of the United Kingdom or that of any Dominion without the assent of all the other parliaments of the UK and Dominions, an arrangement a justice of the Ontario Superior Court in 2003 likened to \"a treaty among the Commonwealth countries to share the monarchy under the existing rules and not to change the rules without the agreement of all signatories.\""}, {"context": " This was all met with only minor trepidation, either before or at the time, and the government of Ireland was confident that the relationship of these independent countries under the Crown would function as a personal union, akin to that which had earlier existed between the United Kingdom and Hanover (1801 to 1837), or between England and Scotland (1603 to 1707). Its first test came, though, with the abdication of King Edward VIII in 1936, for which it was necessary to gain the consent of the governments of all the Dominions and the request and consent of the Canadian government, as well as separate legislation in South Africa and the Irish Free State, before the resignation could take place across the Commonwealth."}, {"context": " The civil division of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales later found in 1982 that the British parliament could have legislated for a Dominion simply by including in any new law a clause claiming the Dominion cabinet had requested and approved of the act, whether that was true or not. Further, the British parliament was not obliged to fulfil a Dominion's request for legislative change. Regardless, in 1935 the British parliament refused to consider the result of the Western Australian secession referendum of 1933 without the approval of the Australian federal parliament. In 1937, the Appeal Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa ruled unanimously that a repeal of the Statute of Westminster in the United Kingdom would have no effect in South Africa, stating: \"We cannot take this argument seriously. Freedom once conferred cannot be revoked.\" Others in Canada upheld the same position."}, {"context": " At the 1932 British Empire Economic Conference, delegates from the United Kingdom, led by Stanley Baldwin (then Lord President of the Council), hoped to establish a system of free trade within the British Commonwealth, to promote unity within the British Empire and to assure Britain's position as a world power. The idea was controversial, as it pitted proponents of imperial trade with those who sought a general policy of trade liberalisation with all nations. The Dominions, particularly Canada, were also adamantly against dispensing with their import tariffs, which \"dispelled any romantic notions of a 'United Empire'.\" The meeting, however, did produce a five year trade agreement based upon a policy, first conceived in the 1900s, of Imperial Preference: the countries retained their import tariffs, but lowered these for other Commonwealth countries."}, {"context": " During his tenure as Governor General of Canada, Lord Tweedsmuir urged the organisation of a royal tour of the country by King George VI, so that he might not only appear in person before his people, but also personally perform constitutional duties and pay a state visit to the United States as king of Canada. While the idea was embraced in Canada as a way to \"translate the Statute of Westminster into the actualities of a tour,\" throughout the planning of the trip that took place in 1939, the British authorities resisted at numerous points the idea that the King be attended by his Canadian ministers instead of his British ones. The Canadian prime minister (still Mackenzie King) was ultimately successful, however, in being the minister in attendance, and the King did in public throughout the trip ultimately act solely in his capacity as the Canadian monarch. The status of the Crown was bolstered by Canada's reception of George VI."}, {"context": " When World War II began, there was some uncertainty in the Dominions about the ramifications of Britain's declaration of war against Adolf Hitler. Australia and New Zealand had not yet ratified the Statute of Westminster; the Australian prime minister, Robert Menzies, considered the government bound by the British declaration of war, while New Zealand coordinated a declaration of war to be made simultaneously with Britain's. As late as 1937, some scholars were still of the mind that, when it came to declarations of war, if the King signed, he did so as king of the empire as a whole; at that time, W. Kennedy wrote: \"in the final test of sovereignty\u2014that of war\u2014Canada is not a sovereign state... and it remains as true in 1937 as it was in 1914 that when the Crown is at war, Canada is legally at war,\" and, one year later, Arthur Berriedale Keith argued that \"issues of war or neutrality still are decided on the final authority of the British Cabinet.\" In 1939, however, Canada and South Africa made separate proclamations of war against Germany a few days after the UK's. Their example was followed more consistently by the other realms as further war was declared against Italy, Romania, Hungary, Finland, and Japan. \u00c9ire (the independent Irish state) remained neutral. At the war's end, it was said by F.R. Scott that \"it is firmly established as a basic constitutional principle that, so far as relates to Canada, the King is regulated by Canadian law and must act only on the advice and responsibility of Canadian ministers.\""}, {"context": " Within three years following the end of the Second World War, India, Pakistan, and Ceylon became independent realms within the Commonwealth (then still called \"Dominions\"), though it was made clear at the time that India would soon move to a republican form of government. Unlike the Republic of Ireland and Burma at the time of their becoming republics, however, there was no desire on the part of India to give up its membership in the British Commonwealth, prompting a Commonwealth Conference and the issuance of the London Declaration in April 1949, which entrenched the idea of Canadian prime minister Louis St. Laurent that different royal houses and republics be allowed in the Commonwealth so long as they recognised as the international organisation's symbolic head the shared sovereign of the United Kingdom and the Dominions. Shortly before the London Declaration, Newfoundland, which had remained a Dominion in name only, had become a province of Canada."}, {"context": " At approximately the same time, the tabling in 1946 of the Canadian parliament's Canadian Citizenship Act had brought into question the homogeneity of the King's subjects, which, prior to that year, was uniformly defined in terms of allegiance to the sovereign, without regard to the individual's country of residence. Following negotiations, it was decided in 1947 that each Commonwealth member was free to pass its own citizenship legislation, so that its citizens owed allegiance only to the monarch in right of that country."}, {"context": " As these constitutional developments were taking place, the Dominion and British governments became increasingly concerned with how to represent the more commonly accepted notion that there was no distinction between the sovereign's role in the United Kingdom and his or her position in any of the Dominions. Thus, at the 1948 Prime Ministers' Conference the term \"Dominion\" was avoided in favour of \"Commonwealth country\", in order to avoid the subordination implied by the older designation. With the British proclamation of Elizabeth II's accession to the throne in 1952, the phrases \"Commonwealth realm\" and \"Head of the Commonwealth\" became established, deriving from the words that declared the monarch as \"of this Realm, and of her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth.\" Previously, the term \"realm\" in its singular form was understood to refer to the entire British Empire, rather than a \"separate kingdom\" under a shared crown."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth realms' prime ministers thereafter discussed the matter of the new monarch's title, with St. Laurent stating at the 1953 Commonwealth Conference that it was important to agree on a format that would \"emphasise the fact that the Queen is Queen of Canada, regardless of her sovereignty over other Commonwealth countries.\" The result was a new Royal Style and Titles Act being passed in each of the seven realms then existing (excluding Pakistan), which all identically gave formal recognition to the separateness and equality of the countries involved, and replaced the phrase \"British Dominions Beyond the Seas\" with \"Her Other Realms and Territories\", the latter using the medieval French word \"realm\" (from \"royaume\") in place of \"dominion\". Further, at her coronation, Elizabeth II's oath contained a provision requiring her to promise to govern according to the rules and customs of the realms, naming each one separately. The change in perspective was summed up by Patrick Gordon Walker's statement in the British House of Commons: \"We in this country have to abandon... any sense of property in the Crown. The Queen, now, clearly, explicitly and according to title, belongs equally to all her realms and to the Commonwealth as a whole.\""}, {"context": " In the same period, Walker also suggested to the British parliament that the Queen should annually spend an equal amount of time in each of her realms. Lord Altrincham, who in 1957 criticised Queen Elizabeth II for having a court that encompassed mostly Britain and not the Commonwealth as a whole, was in favour of the idea, but it did not attract wide support. Another thought raised was that viceregal appointments should become trans-Commonwealth; the Governor-General of Australia would be someone from South Africa, the Governor-General of Ceylon would come from New Zealand, and so on. The prime ministers of Canada and Australia, John Diefenbaker and Robert Menzies, respectively, were sympathetic to the concept, but, again, it was never put into practice."}, {"context": " On 6 July 2010, Queen Elizabeth II addressed the United Nations in New York City as queen of all 16 Commonwealth realms. The following year, Portia Simpson-Miller, the Prime Minister of Jamaica, spoke of a desire to make that country a republic, while Alex Salmond, the First Minister of Scotland and leader of the Scottish National Party (which favours Scottish independence), stated an independent Scotland \"would still share a monarchy with... the UK, just as... 16 [sic] other Commonwealth countries do now.\" Dennis Canavan, leader of Yes Scotland, disagreed and said a separate, post-independence referendum should be held on the matter."}, {"context": " Following the Perth Agreement of 2011, the Commonwealth realms, in accordance with convention, together engaged in a process of amending the common line of succession according to each country's constitution, to ensure the order would continue to be identical in every realm. In legislative debates in the United Kingdom, the term \"Commonwealth realm\" was employed. In addition to the states listed above, the Dominion of Newfoundland was a dominion when the Statute of Westminster 1931 was given royal assent but effectively lost that status in 1934, without ever have assented to the Statute of Westminster, and before the term Commonwealth realm ever came into use. Due to a domestic financial and political crisis, the Newfoundland legislature petitioned the UK to suspend Dominion status, the UK parliament passed the \"Newfoundland Act 1933\", and direct rule was implemented in 1934. Rather than reclaiming dominion status after World War II, it became a province of Canada in 1949.  A number of Commonwealth realms have held referendums to consider whether they should become republics. As of January 2017, of the eight referendums held, only three have been successful: in Ghana, in South Africa and the second referendum in Gambia. Referendums which rejected the proposal were held in Australia, twice in Tuvalu, and in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. There are currently no planned referendums, but interest in holding a second referendum was expressed in Australia in 2010."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v Bank of New South Wales", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v Bank of New South Wales, was a Privy Council decision that affirmed the High Court of Australia's decision in \"Bank of New South Wales v Commonwealth\", promoting the theory of \"individual rights\" to ensure freedom of interstate trade and commerce. The case dealt primarily with Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia. After two strong election wins, the Australian Labor Party government of Ben Chifley announced in 1947 its intention to nationalise private banks in Australia. It achieved this process by passing the Banking Act 1947. The policy proved very controversial, and the Bank of New South Wales challenged the constitutional validity of the law. The High Court found specific provisions of the law were invalid and struck them down. The Commonwealth government decided to appeal the decision in the Privy Council and in doing so adopted a deliberate strategy of limiting the grounds of appeal to avoid seeking a certificate from the High Court under section 74 of the Constitution."}, {"context": " The High Court held in \"Bank of New South Wales v Commonwealth\" that the Banking Act 1947 was unconstitutional on a number of grounds: The Privy Council endorsed the High Court decision in adopting the individual rights approach. Provisions of the Commonwealth law prohibited private banks from carrying out interstate business banking. Interstate banking transactions under the law were thus not \"absolutely free\" and hence in violation of Section 92 of the Constitution. The Law Lords held that a simple legislative prohibition of interstate trade and commerce would be constitutionally invalid, but a law seeking to regulate or prescribe rules as to the manner of trade and commerce would not necessarily be in breach of Section 92. In addition, the act was held to be not an act with respect to banking, and therefore invalid under s51(xiii), the banking power."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v Griffith (MA 1823)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v Griffith is a Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court case that dealt with a slave catcher named Camillus Griffith who recaptured an African American slave named Randolph (last name unknown). The issues brought up in this case were Griffith not attaining a warrant before seizing Randolph, if slaves were considered in the U.S. Constitution and if they were, was the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 constitutional, and lastly who should make the decision regarding this issue on slaves and how they can be seized. The case included Chief Justice Parker delivering an opinion in agreeance with Griffith's plea and a dissent from Justice Thatcher who stated that the law of Massachusetts should not be violated, however, at the same time the ruling decision should be made by Congress. The case's decision really analyzed the meaning of the 4th Amendment (1791) and was one of many cases that paved a way to the ratification of the 13th Amendment (1865)."}, {"context": " Camillus Griffith, by trade, was a traveling slave catcher who had seized and recaptured a slave named Randolph in the year of 1832. Randolph was on his own property at the time, in New Bedford, Massachusetts when, without warrant, Griffith seized and kept him in confinement. Griffith was charged with assault, battery, and unjust imprisonment, which he claimed were legal acts under the federal law. Griffith appealed to the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts after being convicted by the trial court. Griffith admitted that he did not have a written document giving him permission to recapture Randolph, however he pleaded that slaves were not included in the U.S. Constitution therefore had no constitutional rights. Chief Justice Parker heard Griffith's plea and agreed that slaves had no constitutional rights, therefore he ruled in Griffith's favor."}, {"context": " Chief Justice Isaac Parker, in summary, said that they could not prove that slaves were included in the writing of the U.S. Constitution therefore, they would deem that Griffith's actions be considered U.S. Constitutional. He said, \"We must reflect, however, that the U.S. Constitution was made with some States in which it would not occur to the mind, to inquire whether slaves were property.\" He then goes on to explain that the words in the U.S. Constitution were used out of respect for those who did not agree with slavery, \"The words of it [U.S. Constitution] were used out of delicacy, so as not to offend some in the convention whose feelings were abhorrent to slavery; but we there entered into an agreement that slaves should be considered as property. Slavery would still have continued if no U.S. Constitution had been made. The U.S. Constitution does not prescribe the mode of reclaiming a slave, but leaves it to be determined by Congress.\""}, {"context": " Justice George Thatcher told Chief Justice Parker that he agreed to many things that Parker said, however he did not completely agree with him. Thatcher said he agreed that the U.S. Constitution had not been violated, however, he believed that the U.S. Constitution was intended \"conform\" to the laws of \"all\" the States in regard to seizures, but still not violate the law of one of the States. Thatcher stated that the laws of Massachusetts did not \"recognize\" a slave, but rather \"freemen.\" He said, \"Every person here is a free man, and entitled to all privileges of a freeman; one of which is to be secure against all seizures\u2026\" He went on to admit that southerners were allowed to seize without a warrant because the laws in their states said it was a legal action, while in northern states it was definitely not a legal action because the state's law says so. He said that the complaint should not even describe Randolph as a slave because according to the law of the northern states, it did not recognize anyone as being a slave. He argued therefore, that the claim of slave should be thrown out, and it should be ruled that the defendant (Griffith) completely violated the law of Massachusetts and should be charged solely for his crimes."}, {"context": " The significance of the case regards whether the Fugitive Slave Act (1793) was constitutional or not. The \"Fugitive Slave Act\" allowed plantation masters to recapture or hire someone else to recapture one of their runaway slaves. Chief Justice Parker argued slaves were not \"parties in the constitution,\" therefore, the act was deemed not unconstitutional because slaves were property not a person. Thus when translating and analyzing the 4th Amendment (1791) they determined who it did or did not apply to. Therefore, it was determined that slaves were not covered by the U.S. Constitution, making the \"Fugitive Slave Act\" constitutional. When the 13th Amendment was ratified in 1865 a wave of change blew in, it annulled the \"Fugitive Slave Act\" and the legislation that came with it. This was a significant shift because slaves were now beginning to be considered as persons not property, persons who had rights and who were covered under the 4th amendment."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v Tasmania", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v Tasmania (popularly known as the Tasmanian Dam Case) was a significant Australian court case, decided in the High Court of Australia on 1 July 1983. The case was a landmark decision in Australian constitutional law, and was a significant moment in the history of conservation in Australia. The case centred on the proposed construction of a hydro-electric dam on the Gordon River in Tasmania, which was supported by the Tasmanian government, but opposed by the Australian federal government and environmental groups."}, {"context": " In 1978, the Hydro-Electric Commission, then a body owned by the Tasmanian government, proposed the construction of a hydro-electric dam on the Gordon River, below its confluence with the Franklin River, in Tasmania's rugged south-west region. The dam would have flooded the Franklin River. In June 1981 the Labor state government created the Wild Rivers National Park in an attempt to protect the river. The boundaries would have allowed the construction of another dam lower on the Gordon River, below its confluence with the Olga River."}, {"context": " In May 1982, a Liberal state government was elected which supported the dam. The federal Liberal government at the time, led by Malcolm Fraser, made offers of compensation to Tasmania, however, they were not successful in stopping the dam's construction. In November 1982, UNESCO declared the Franklin area a World heritage site after a nomination by the Labor government, forwarded by the Commonwealth, was accepted by the World Heritage Committee. During the 1983 federal election, the Labor party under Bob Hawke had promised to intervene and prevent the construction of the dam. After winning the election, the Labor government passed the \"World Heritage Properties Conservation Act, 1983\" (Cth), which, in conjunction with the \"National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975\" enabled them to prohibit clearing, excavation and other activities within the Tasmanian Wilderness World heritage area."}, {"context": " The Tasmanian government challenged these actions, arguing that the Australian Constitution gave no authority to the federal government to make such regulations. In May and June 1983, both governments put their case to the High Court of Australia. The case revolved around several major constitutional issues, the most important being the constitutional validity of the \"World Heritage Properties Conservation Act 1983\" (or \"World Heritage Act\"). The division of powers between the Australian federal government and the individual state governments is defined mainly by section 51 of the Australian constitution. The federal government had taken a range of actions, which they claimed were authorised under specific subsections of section 51. The Tasmanian government disputed these claims."}, {"context": " Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution gives the federal parliament the power to make laws with respect to external affairs, a nebulously defined provision. The Hawke government passed the World Heritage Act under this provision, claiming that the Act was giving effect to an international treaty to which Australia was a party, in this case the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, which governs UNESCO's World heritage program. The Tasmanian government (as well as the governments of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland) opposed this action. Allowing the federal government such broad new powers would infringe on the States' power to legislate in many areas, and would upset the \"federal balance\". Chief Justice Gibbs said that although all of the Constitution is open to interpretation, \"the external affairs power differs from the other powers conferred by s 51 in its capacity for almost unlimited expansion.\" Defining which affairs were of \u201cinternational character\u201d was a difficult task for the court."}, {"context": " However, Justice Mason recognised that the external affairs power was specifically intended to be ambiguous, and capable of expansion. When the Constitution came into effect in 1901, there were few (if any) international organizations such as the United Nations in existence (not to mention multinational corporations). However, in modern times, there are many more areas in which nations cooperate. In his judgement, Justice Murphy said that in order for a law to have an international character, it is sufficient that it:"}, {"context": " It is important to note that the decisions of UNESCO in designating World heritage sites have no binding force upon any government. However, the ratification of the Convention could be seen as a commitment to upholding its aims, and an acceptance of obligations under it. Section 51(xx) provides that the federal government has powers to make laws regarding foreign, trading and financial corporations. Tasmania argued that this head of power could not apply to its Hydro-Electric Commission since it was in effect a department of the Tasmanian government, and not a trading corporation. However, as the HEC was engaged in the widespread production and sale of electricity, and had a degree of independence from the government, it was held to be a trading corporation."}, {"context": " Section 51(xxxi) of the Australian Constitution provides that the federal government has the power to appropriate property \u201con just terms\u201d for any other purpose it has powers to make laws about (see Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia: for example, acquiring land to build a military base). The crucial phrase in this section is \u201con just terms\u201d. Tasmania argued that the federal government has deprived it of property unjustly by passing the World Heritage Act. Justice Brennan said however that Tasmania had no proprietary rights over the site for the proposed dam (that is, it was not private land), and therefore it had not been deprived of any property."}, {"context": " A four to three majority of the seven members of the High Court held that the federal government had legitimately prevented construction of the dam, and that the \"World Heritage Act\" was authorised under the \"external affairs\" power. Although other parts of the Act were invalid, the provision banning the construction of dams was valid. The case ended the HEC\u2019s plans to construct more hydro-electric dams in Tasmania, and indeed there have been few plans for dams in Australia since. The legal debate over the extent of the \"external affairs\" power continued for a decade in a series of cases in the High Court in which the wide view of the external affairs power prevailed. It is now firmly established that under section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution the Australian Government has the power to enact legislation that is reasonably capable of being considered appropriate and adapted to fulfill Australia\u2019s international legal obligations."}, {"context": " Due to the large number of international obligations that Australia has accepted under international treaties, the external affairs power in section 51(xxix) gives the Australian Government a very wide constitutional power to make laws on many subjects, including protecting the environment. Large parts of Australia's main national environmental law, the \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\" (Cth), depend for their constitutional validity on the decision in the Tasmanian Dam Case regarding the external affairs power.  These include the protection of World Heritage properties, Ramsar wetlands, threatened species and threatened ecological communities, and migratory species."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v Verwayen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v Verwayen, also known as the Voyager case, is a leading case involving estoppel in Australia. Bernard Verwayen sued the Australian government for damages caused by a collision between two ships of the Australian Navy. A representative of the Government initially indicated to Bernard Verwayen that the Government would not raise the statute of limitations as a defence to their negligence. In court however, the Government relied on this defence. While the decision of the High Court was spilt, a majority of judges found that the Government could not rely on this statement as a defence. Justices Toohey and Gaudron came to this conclusion on the basis that the Government had waived their right to rely on this defence. However, Justices Deane and Dawson came to this conclusion under the doctrine of estoppel, which provides that a defendant can not contradict a previous representation or promise made that has established an assumed state of legal affairs. This case is most frequently referred to in relation to its influence on the doctrine of estoppel."}, {"context": " Bernard Verwayen was an electrical mechanic in the RAN serving on HMAS Voyager, and was injured in the collision with HMAS Melbourne on 10 February 1964. He later sued the government for damages for his injuries. Horace Parker was one of the men on the Voyager who died as a result of the collision. Parker had previously been a Chief Electrician in the Navy however he had been discharged and was a civilian working as a Technical Officer at the Naval Dockyard, Williamstown. Voyager had refitted at Williamstown and Parker was on board to make adjustments to her electrical weapon control system. His widow brought a claim in the original jurisdiction of the High Court and the Commonwealth admitted that Parker's death was caused by the negligence of some member or members of the Navy. Windeyer J noted that no one could bring an action for negligence based on anything done in the course of war operations, but that members of the armed services are liable to civilians injured by negligent acts during peace-time. Because Parker was a civilian the Australian Government was liable. Windeyer J however made the following obiter dicta observation:"}, {"context": " ... as I see the matter at present, the law does not enable a serving member of any of Her Majesty's forces to recover damages from a fellow member because acts done by him in the course of his duty were negligently done. Despite this case however, the Australian Government adopted a policy that when sued by a member of the military it would not challenge whether a member of the military could sue for damage caused by the negligence of another member of the military. In 1981 the Australian Government changed its policy and asked the High Court to decide that question. In 1982 the High Court unanimously held that a member of the military could sue for damage caused by the negligence of a fellow member. Gibbs CJ put it succinctly, noting that a civilian could recover damages caused by the negligence of a member of the military. Similarly a member of the military could recover damages caused by the negligence of a civilian. There was no principle or policy reason why a person could not recover damages if both were members of the military. Each member of the high Court reached the same conclusion on essentially the same reasoning, expressly leaving open the question of whether the position was different if it involved, war-like activities or training in conditions simulating war."}, {"context": " This opened the possibility of members of the military injured in the Melbourne\u2013Voyager collision to sue for damages. There were however two issues that had to be overcome, (1) the question of whether the collision occurred when training in conditions simulating war, and (2) that 20 years had passed since the incident such that the limitation period had expired. The solicitors for Verwayen had acted for a number of survivors following the Groves decision. In September 1984 they wrote to the Australian Government solicitor prior to Verwayen commencing proceedings, and the Australian Government Solicitor responded that the Australian Government intended to admit negligence and to waive the limitation period. In November 1984 Verwayen commenced proceedings in the Supreme Court of Victoria. In January 1985, the crown solicitor wrote to Verwayen's solicitor stating: \"As you have pointed out, the Commonwealth has admitted negligence and is not pressing the statutory limitation period as a defence. Nevertheless, it still expects claimants to show that they have suffered injury ... and to prove the extent of their injuries and resultant loss, in order to justify an award of damages.\" In March 1985 the Commonwealth filed its defence which admitted that the collision was caused by the negligence of naval officers and crew and did not plead that the action was commenced outside of the time limit. In November 1985 the government changed its policy to defend proceedings on the basis that it did not owe a civil duty of care to servicemen engaged in operational training."}, {"context": " The matter was given an expedited hearing and was set to be heard by a jury at the end of May 1986. A few days before the hearing the government sought to amend its defence. A Master gave the government permission to amend its defence which caused the trial to be abandoned. Far from being an expedited hearing, this was followed by series of courtcases and appeals, in relation to the manner of trial, and discovery. In December 1987 O'Bryan J noted that Verwayen was below deck and not performing any combat activity and held that the duty of navigating a naval vessel with reasonable skill was no different during the training exercise to the duty existing at other times at sea such that there was no public policy reason why Verwayen should be prevented from claiming in negligence, that the \"Limitation of Actions Act\" 1958 (Vic) applied, that the waiver of the limitation defence was unilateral and voluntary such that the government could withdraw the waiver. In relation to the doctrine of estoppel O'Bryan J held that promissory estoppel, did not arise because there was no legal relationship and no consideration and that the only way Verwayen altered his position in reliance on the promise was by incurring legal costs. Despite giving judgement for the government and dismissing Verwayen's claim, O'Bryan J was critical of the government's change of position, and ordered the government to pay Verwayen's costs."}, {"context": " Verwayen lodged an appeal to the Full Court. There was a significant change in the law of estoppel two months after the judgment of O'Bryan J, in that the High Court handed down its decision in \"Waltons Stores (Interstate) Ltd v Maher\", where the High Court held that promissory estoppel could constitute a cause of action, where the conduct of the other party was unconscionable. The majority of the Supreme Court, Kaye & Marks JJ, applied the High Court's decision from Walton Stores, holding \"In our view, such proofs are met here. There can be little doubt, for example, that the promise by the respondent to admit the claim and not to plead the statute was made deliberately and with the knowledge and intention that the appellant pursue his claim and have his damages assessed. The respondent, we repeat, signed a certificate of readiness and joined more than once in an application by the appellant for a speedy hearing of an assessment of damages.\" They also held that there was \"nothing in the admitted facts to suggest that at the time of collision Voyager was engaged in a military manoeuvre as such or otherwise doing anything which could remotely be described as training for battle.\" The majority allowed the appeal, which meant that the proceedings had to go to trial on the issues of negligence and damages. King J dissented on the basis that Verwayen could be put in the same position he was in as if the promise had not been made by the Commonwealth paying his legal costs."}, {"context": " The Commonwealth appealed to the High Court. The Commonwealth was represented by Michael Black who argued that the detriment suffered by Verwayen was incurring legal costs such that the payment of those costs would put him in the same position as if the promise had not been made. The remedy granted by the Supreme Court was disproportionate to the detriment suffered by Verwayen. The Commonwealth also argued that did not owe a duty of care to Mr Verwayen because at the time of the collision the warships were engaged in naval training exercises simulating combat conditions."}, {"context": " Thomson , who had appeared for Verwayen at first instance and on appeal, argued that the Full Court of the Supreme Court had correctly applied the law regarding estoppel and that the Commonwealth had waived the limitations defence. The majority of the High Court dismissed the appeal, holding that the Commonwealth was barred from pleading a limitation defence to Verwayen's claim in negligence. Each of the seven High Court judges gave their own judgment and each differed in relation to their reasons. Two judges, Deane J and Dawson J held that estoppel prevented the Commonwealth from relying on the limitation defence, two judges Toohey J and Gaudron J held that the Commonwealth had waived its right to rely on the limitation defence. None of the judges considered the combat exercises defence separate from the questions of estoppel and waiver. Gageler and Lim describe the judgement as an illustration of collective irrationality, in that while four judges agreed as to the result, the respondent prevailed despite having a majority against him on each issue."}, {"context": " Equitable estoppel operates where a party makes a representation as to a future state of affairs and the other party relies upon that representation to their detriment. Deane J noted that as an equitable remedy, \"an estoppel in equity may not entitle the party raising it to the full benefit of the assumption upon which he relied. The equity is said 'not to compel the party bound to fulfil the assumption or expectation; it is to avoid the detriment which, if the assumption or expectation goes unfulfilled, will be suffered by the party who has been induced to act or to abstain from acting thereon' ... To avoid the detriment may, however, require that the party estopped make good the assumption ... But, depending upon the circumstances of the case, the relief required may be considerably less.\" The Court accepted that Mr Verwayen had relied on an assumption that the Commonwealth would not dispute liability and which the Commonwealth's conduct had induced him to adopt. The purpose of the remedy was to prevent the detriment caused by that reliance. What divided the Court was the extent to which Mr Verwayen had established that he had suffered increased stress, anxiety and ill health as a result of his reliance on the assumption."}, {"context": " Deane J and Dawson J each held that the doctrine of estoppel prevented the Commonwealth from disputing its liability to Verwayen. Dawson J held that \"By falsely raising his hopes, the [Commonwealth] led [Mr Verwayen] to continue with the litigation and forgo any exploration of the possibility of settlement thereby subjecting himself to a prolonged period of stress in an action in which the damages claimed were for, amongst other things, a high level of anxiety and depression. I would hold that the appellant was estopped from insisting upon the statute of limitations, and would observe that the equity raised by the [Commonwealth's] conduct was such ... that it could only be accounted for by the fulfilment of the assumption upon which [Mr Verwayen's] actions were based\" Deane J went further, adopting an expectation based approach to relief, holding that the assumption should be made good unless that would cause injustice to the person who made the representaion. Mr Verwayen had \"expended both time and money thereon. Far more important, he subjected himself to the stress, anxiety and inconvenience which were inevitably involved in the pursuit of the proceedings.\""}, {"context": " Gaudron J adopted a similar approach to Deane J, that the assumption should be made good unless there was an exception. Gaudron J held that the exception was based on avoiding the detriment, stating \"The substantive doctrine of estoppel permits a court to do what is required to avoid detriment and does not require the making good of the assumption on which it is founded in every case. Even so, it may be that an assumption should be made good unless it is clear that no detriment will be suffered other than that which can be compensated by some other remedy\". Because of her views on waiver, Gaudron J did not decide the matter on this basis."}, {"context": " Each of the dissenting judges did so on the basis that estoppel was intended to avoid the detriment and that because there was no evidence of non-financial loss, compensation for costs was sufficient to avoid that detriment. Toohey J did not deal with the question of estoppel, but hold that the remedy is a means of avoiding detriment and that in this case it may be achieved by compensating Mr Verwayen for his costs in pursuing the action. Toohey J and Gaudron J found that Commonwealth had waived its right to rely on the limitation defence. Toohey J limited his consideration to waiver as it exists within the adjudicative process, holding that in that sense waiver \"may be found in the deliberate act of a defendant not to rely upon a defence available to him\". The Commonwealth had, by it words and actions unequivocally renounced both the limitations defence and the combat exercise defence. Waiver in this sense could not be withdrawn."}, {"context": " Similarly Gaudron J held that \"a party to litigation will be held to a position previously taken (that position having been intentionally taken with knowledge) if, as a result of that earlier position, the relationship of the parties has changed.\" The history of the expression \"waiver\" was considered in detail by Mason CJ, noting the robust criticism of the expression waiver, both academically, and judicially. and describing it as an \"imprecise term capable of describing different legal concepts, notably election and estoppel\". Mason CJ noted the expanding role of estoppel as the rationale for many of the authorities dealing with waiver and limited his consideration to the category of waiver described as election, being a choice between alternative rights that are inconsistent with one another, and, having chosen one, abandons the other."}, {"context": " Deane J held that the \"somewhat arbitrary doctrine of waiver is being increasingly absorbed and rationalized by the more flexible doctrine of estoppel by conduct\" such that, like Mason CJ, he saw waiver as being confined to cases of election. The other three judges took a broader view of waiver. Brennan J held that the doctrines of estoppel, waiver and election were distinct and that waiver was the unilateral divestiture of rights. A mere intention not to exercise a right is not immediately effective to divest or sterilize that right, as a right is waived only when the time comes for its exercise and the party for whose sole benefit it has been introduced knowingly abstains from exercising it. In this case because the Commonwealth was given leave to amend to plead the limitation defence, the time for waiving the defence had not arrived. Dawson J also held that a waiver, being the non-insistence upon a right either by choice or by default, existed outside of election or estoppel. He held that, like Brennan J, leave to amend meant that the right had not been waived.  McHugh J also held that there was cases of waiver that could not accurately be categorised as estoppel or election. The Commonwealth's capacity to plead the defence was goverened by the principles covering the right to amend. Once the Commonwealth was given leave to amend, the question of waiver did not apply. Verwayen later received an Order of Australia Medal for his works in assisting other services personnel."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v Yarmirr", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Yarmirr v Northern Territory, that was an application for the determination of native title to seas, sea-bed and sub-soil, ultimately determined on appeal to the High Court of Australia. The application was made on behalf of a number of clan groups of Aboriginal people to an area of seas and sea-beds surrounding Croker Island in the Northern Territory of Australia. The native title rights and interests claimed included the right to exclusive possession. The case established that traditional owners do have native title of the sea and sea-bed, however common law rights of fishing and navigation mean that only non-exclusive native title can exist over the sea."}, {"context": " The case aimed to determine, under Territorial application of the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth): The trial judge, Olney J, determined members of the Croker Island community have a non-exclusive native title right to have free access to the sea and sea-bed of the claimed area for all or any of the following purposes: The claimed area was defined by maps attached to the application for determination. It included the seas and extended to land or reefs within the proposed boundaries. Native title of Croker Island and other islands within the claimed area had been granted in 1980 and were not within the claim."}, {"context": " Both the Commonwealth and the claimants appealed the original determination. A full court of the Federal Court, by a majority, Beaumont and von Doussa JJ, dismissed both appeals. Merkel would have dismissed the appeal by the Commonwealth, allowed the appeal by the claimants and remitted the matter back to the trial judge for further hearing. Both the Commonwealth and the claimants appealed to the High Court, which upheld the Commonwealths' appeal and dismissed claimants' appeal. The determination was thus amended so as to be restricted to and apply to the internal waters of the Northern Territory, including the inter-tidal zone both of the mainland and of the islands within the claimed area.  The claimants were ordered to pay the costs of both the claimants' and the Commonwealth's appeals."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Abu-Jamal", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Mumia Abu-Jamal was a 1982 murder trial in which Mumia Abu-Jamal was tried for the first-degree murder of police officer Daniel Faulkner. A jury convicted Abu-Jamal on all counts and sentenced him to death. Appeal of the conviction was denied by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1989, and in the following two years the Supreme Court of the United States denied both Abu-Jamal's petition for writ of certiorari, and his petition for rehearing. Abu-Jamal pursued state post-conviction review, the outcome of which was a unanimous decision by six judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania that all issues raised by him, including the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, were without merit. The Supreme Court of the United States again denied a petition for certiorari in 1999, after which Abu-Jamal pursued federal habeas corpus review."}, {"context": " In December 2001 Judge William H. Yohn, Jr. of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania affirmed Abu-Jamal's conviction but quashed his original punishment and ordered resentencing. Both Abu-Jamal and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania appealed. On March 27, 2008, a three-judge panel in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit issued its opinion upholding the decision of the District Court. In April 2009, the case was declined by the United States Supreme Court, allowing the July 1982 conviction to stand."}, {"context": " On December 7, 2011, District Attorney of Philadelphia R. Seth Williams announced that prosecutors, with the support of the victim's family, would no longer seek the death penalty for Abu-Jamal. Daniel J. Faulkner (December 21, 1955 \u2013 December 9, 1981): Faulkner was the youngest of seven children in an Irish Catholic family from Southwest Philadelphia. Faulkner's father, a trolley car driver, died of a heart attack when Faulkner was five. Faulkner's mother went to work and relied on her older children to help raise him. He dropped out of high school, but earned his diploma and an associate's degree in criminal justice while serving in the United States Army. In 1975, Faulkner left the army, worked briefly as a corrections officer, and then joined the Philadelphia Police Department. Faulkner got married in 1979. Aspiring to attend law school and ultimately become a city prosecutor, Faulkner was enrolled in college and working toward earning a bachelor's degree in criminal justice administration when he was shot and killed."}, {"context": " On December 9, 1981, around 3:51\u00a0a.m. near the intersection of 13th and Locust Streets in Philadelphia, Philadelphia Police Department officer Daniel Faulkner was conducting a traffic stop of William Cook, Abu-Jamal's younger brother. Faulkner and Cook became engaged in a physical confrontation. Abu-Jamal's taxi was parked across the street, from which he ran towards Cook's car and shot Faulkner in the back and then in the face. During the encounter, Faulkner shot Abu-Jamal in the stomach. Faulkner died at the scene from the head shot. Police arrived and arrested Abu-Jamal, who was wearing a shoulder holster. His revolver was beside him and had five spent cartridges. Abu-Jamal was taken directly from the scene of the shooting to Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, where he received treatment for his wound. He was charged with the first-degree murder of Daniel Faulkner, and Anthony Jackson, Esquire was court appointed as his representation."}, {"context": " The case went to trial in June 1982 at Philadelphia's City Hall. Judge Paul Ribner, the judge overseeing pre-trial hearings, initially granted to Abu-Jamal's request to represent himself, appointing Jackson as backup counsel. During jury selection on the third day of the trial, this decision was reversed by Judge Albert F. Sabo. The trial resumed with tense relations between Sabo and Abu-Jamal, Abu-Jamal repeatedly requesting John Africa as backup counsel which Sabo adamantly prohibited. The jury was initially composed of nine white and three black jurors, after McGill used 11 of 15 peremptory challenges to remove blacks from the jury pool. Another black juror was later removed by Sabo, leaving two black jurors out of twelve hearing the case."}, {"context": " The prosecution maintained that: The four prosecution eyewitnesses were: Robert Chobert said he was in his cab parked directly behind Faulkner's police car. He positively identified Abu-Jamal as the shooter, testifying: \"I heard a shot. I looked up, I saw the cop fall to the ground, and then I saw Jamal standing over him and firing some more shots into him...Then I saw him [Jamal] walking back about ten feet and he just fell by the curb.\" During cross-examination, Chobert admitted that he had originally told the police that the shooter had moved 30 rather than 10\u00a0ft away from Faulkner, and had been 30-to-50\u00a0pounds heavier than Abu-Jamal. He explained, \"I'm not good at weight. Do you think I'm going to stand there for a couple of minutes and ask him how much he weighs?\" Chobert was a disqualified/unlicensed cab driver on parole for arson. He had two prior arrests for drunk-driving, and admitted in 1995 to having sought the advice of the trial prosecutor as to how he could reclaim his driving privileges."}, {"context": " Cynthia White testified to witnessing the shootings from a nearby corner. She said: \"[Abu-Jamal] was running out of the parking lot...he shot two times at the police officer...he came on top of the police officer and shot some more times. After that he went over and he slouched down and he sat on the curb.\" Dessie Hightower stated that he observed her to be at least half a block further away. Prostitute Veronica Jones said later that she had been offered favorable treatment by police on condition that she corroborate Cynthia White. Yvette Williams later claimed that while incarcerated with White in December 1981 she was told by her that she had not seen who shot Faulkner and that she had entirely fabricated a witness account identifying Abu-Jamal out of fear of the Philadelphia police. Police informant Pamela Jenkins testified at a post-conviction relief hearing in 1997, that she had been pressured by Philadelphia police to falsely state that she had witnessed the killing of Faulkner and identify Abu-Jamal as the murderer. She also testified that she thought White was in fear of her life from police after the shooting of Faulkner, and that she had seen Ms White in the company of Philadelphia police as recently as March 1997. However, the prosecution produced Cynthia White's death certificate showing that she had died in 1992."}, {"context": " Scanlan testified that he saw Faulkner assaulted in front of his police car shortly before another man ran across the street from a parking lot and shot Faulkner. Scanlan was not able to identify or describe the shooter. Under cross-examination, which was interrupted by Abu-Jamal being removed from the courtroom for disruption, Scanlan admitted to being mildly under the influence of alcohol. Magilton testified to witnessing Faulkner pull over Cook's car but, at the point of seeing Abu-Jamal start to cross the street toward them from the parking lot, he turned away and lost sight of what happened next until he heard gunshots. He did not see any shooting, or Chobert's vehicle parked behind Faulkner's."}, {"context": " Two witnesses, security officer Priscilla Durham and Police Officer Garry Bell, testified that while Abu-Jamal was at hospital, he acknowledged that he had shot Faulkner by proclaiming, \"I shot the motherfucker, and I hope the motherfucker dies.\" The hospital doctors have claimed that Abu-Jamal was not capable of making such a statement during that time. The original report of Gary Wakshul, a police officer who accompanied Abu-Jamal to and at the hospital, relates that \"the negro male made no comments\". Over two months afterwards, when interviewed by police Internal Affairs officers, Wakshul claimed to have remembered hearing Abu-Jamal's alleged confession. He blamed \"emotional trauma\" for the delay. When the defense attempted to call Wakshul for cross-examination, it was reported that he was on vacation and unavailable. Wakshul never testified in court and his original statement that \"the negro male made no comments\" was never admitted as evidence."}, {"context": " A .38 caliber Charter Arms revolver registered to Abu-Jamal was found at the scene next to him with 5 spent shell casings. Tests performed with the physical evidence verify that Faulkner was killed by a .38 caliber bullet. The extracted slugs were identified as Federal brand .38 Special +P bullets with hollow bases, which matched the shell casings in Abu-Jamal's handgun retrieved at the scene. Rifling characteristics evident on the bullet fragments extracted from Faulkner's body matched those of the handgun. Anthony L. Paul, Supervisor of the Firearms Identification Unit, testified that the type of bullet was rare at the time, with only one manufacturer, though he could name two other manufacturers which produced weapons bearing the same rifling characteristics. Experts testified that the bullet taken from Abu-Jamal was fired from Faulkner's service weapon. George Fassnacht, the defense's ballistics expert, did not dispute the findings of the prosecution's experts."}, {"context": " Amnesty International, with reference to the physical evidence, has expressed the view that \"...the police failed to conduct tests to ascertain whether the weapon had been fired in the immediate past...Compounding this error, the police also failed to conduct chemical tests on Abu-Jamal's hands to find out if he had fired a gun recently.\" In a 1995 hearing, a defense ballistics expert testified that due to Abu-Jamal's struggle with the police during his arrest, such a test would have been difficult to accomplish and, due to the gunpowder residue possibly being shaken or rubbed off, would not have been scientifically reliable. A note written by coroner Dr. Paul Hoyer, who autopsied Daniel Faulkner, states that he extracted a .44 caliber bullet from Faulkner. This has led to claims that Faulkner was shot by a .44 caliber rather than a .38 caliber weapon. Hoyer admitted in 1995 that this was an \"intermediate note\" that was not supposed to be published, and that the note had been a \"lay guess\" based on his own observations, that he was not a firearms expert and that he had not received any training in weapons ballistics."}, {"context": " Defense witness Dessie Hightower described a man running along the street shortly after the shooting. This became known as the \"running man theory\", based on the possibility that a \"running man\" may have been the actual shooter. Another witness, Veronica Jones, said \"All I seen was two men and a policeman on the ground and what else can I say? I was kind of intoxicated.\" In reply to the question, \"Did you see anyone running away from the scene?\" She replied, \"I didn't see anyone do nothing. No one moved.\" The defense claimed to have a third witness, Deborah Kordansky, but she refused to appear in court."}, {"context": " The defense presented character witnesses including poet Sonia Sanchez. Sanchez testified that Abu-Jamal was \"viewed by the black community as a creative, articulate, peaceful, genial man\". During cross examination the prosecution raised her association with convicted felon and Black Panther activist Joanne Chesimard; Sanchez was also asked over defense objections whether she supported other blacks who had killed police, to which she replied she had. Abu-Jamal did not state his version of the events during the initial police investigation nor did he testify in his own defense at trial. Nearly 20 years later, a man named Arnold Beverly submitted an affidavit stating that he was the person who killed Officer Faulkner. Beverly wrote that while \"wearing a green (camouflage) army jacket\", he had run across the street and shot Daniel Faulkner as part of a contract killing because Faulkner was interfering with graft and payoff to corrupt police. Abu-Jamal subsequently provided his own statement in which he said he had been sitting in his cab across the street when he heard shouting, then saw a police vehicle, then heard the sound of gunshots. Upon seeing his brother appearing disoriented across the street, Abu-Jamal ran to him and was shot by a police officer. He maintains to have no memory of the events between being shot and the arrival of officers at the scene. He also claims to have been abused by the police while he was still in need of medical assistance for his wound. He explained, \"At my trial I was denied the right to defend myself. I had no confidence in my court-appointed attorney, who never even asked me what happened the night I was shot and the police officer was killed; and I was excluded from at least half the trial\u00a0... Since I was denied all my rights at my trial I did not testify. I would not be used to make it look like I had a fair trial\u00a0... I never said I shot the policeman. I did not shoot the policeman\u00a0... I never said I hoped he died. I would never say something like that.\""}, {"context": " For a similar period, William Cook also did not testify at the trial or make any statement about events that night other than saying to police at the crime scene repeatedly: \"I ain't got nothing to do with this!\" In 2001, Cook belatedly declared that he would be willing to testify and that both he and his brother \"had nothing do with shooting or killing the policeman\". He stated that another man, Kenneth Freeman, was in his car at the time. According to Cook, Freeman was sitting in the front passenger seat, armed with a .38, wearing a green army jacket, knowing of a plan to kill Faulkner, and participating in the shooting. Freeman's handcuffed and naked corpse was discovered in North Philadelphia on the night of the police bombing of the MOVE communal residence in 1985 and neither his name nor the fact of his presence at the crimescene was raised at any stage during the course of the trial and sentencing in 1982. At the time of his death, Daniel Faulkner was in possession of the replacement temporary driver license of Arnold Howard which the latter had recently \"loaned\" to Freeman for unspecified purposes."}, {"context": " Several others have made statements in support of Abu-Jamal. At a post-conviction review hearing in 1995, William \"Dales\" Singletary testified that he witnessed the shooting and that the gunman was the passenger in Cook's car wearing an army overcoat. Singletary said that police tore up his written statements and that he was prevailed upon to sign a different statement which they dictated. Singletary's account was deemed \"not credible\" and \"medically impossible\" (he claimed that Faulkner spoke after being shot in the eye at point blank range, which would have been instantaneously lethal, and that a police helicopter was in attendance, which no other witnesses described). Police officer Vernon Jones testified that at the crime scene Singletary had said that he had not witnessed any shooting other than hearing some shots that he thought were firecrackers. William Harmon, who had convictions for forgery, fraud and theft by deception, testified that he had seen a man other than Abu-Jamal kill Faulkner and flee in a car which pulled up at the crimescene."}, {"context": " Court stenographer Terri Maurer-Carter stated in a 2001 affidavit that the presiding Judge had exclaimed, \"Yeah, and I'm going to help them fry the nigger\", in the course of a conversation regarding Abu-Jamal's case. Judge Sabo denied making such a comment. Kenneth Pate, a stepbrother of Priscilla Durham with a history of imprisonment, swore a declaration that he asked her in a telephone conversation whether she had heard Abu-Jamal confess and that she had answered, \"All I heard him say was: 'Get off me, get off me, they're trying to kill me'\". Pate reported the conversation to Abu-Jamal while they were serving in the same prison."}, {"context": " In corroboration of the four prosecution eyewitnesses, Robert Harkins testified in 1995, that he had witnessed a man stand over Faulkner as the latter lay wounded on the ground, who shot him point-blank in the face and who then \"walked and sat down on the curb\". In media coverage, a volunteer named Phillip Bloch claimed that he visited Abu-Jamal in prison in 1992 and asked him whether he regretted killing Faulkner, to which Abu-Jamal replied, \"Yes.\" Bloch, otherwise a supporter of Abu-Jamal's case, stated he came forward after he grew concerned about the vilification of Daniel Faulkner. In response, Abu-Jamal is reported to have said \"A lie is a lie, whether made today or 10 years later\", and thanked the media \"...not for their work but for stoking this controversy, because controversy leads to questioning, and one can only question this belated confession.\""}, {"context": " The jury delivered a unanimous guilty verdict after three hours of deliberations. In the sentencing phase of the trial Abu-Jamal read to the jury from a prepared statement and was then sworn and cross-examined about issues relevant to the assessment of his character by Joseph McGill, the prosecuting attorney. In his statement Abu-Jamal criticized his attorney as a \"legal trained lawyer\" who was imposed on him against his will who \"knew he was inadequate to the task and chose to follow the directions of this black-robed conspirator, [Judge] Albert Sabo, even if it meant ignoring my directions\". He claimed that his rights had been \"deceitfully stolen\" from him by the Judge, particularly focusing on the denial of his request to receive defense assistance from John Africa (who was not an attorney) and his being prevented from proceeding pro se. He quoted remarks of John Africa and declared himself \"innocent of these charges\"."}, {"context": " Abu-Jamal was subsequently sentenced to death by the unanimous decision of the jury. The date of the sentence is recorded as May 25, 1983. Judicial execution in Pennsylvania is by means of lethal injection and would occur at the State Correctional Institution - Rockview. The Philadelphia Office of the District Attorney, Daniel Faulkner's family, including his wife Maureen, the Fraternal Order of Police, and other law-enforcement-related organizations have expressed approval of the conviction and sentence\u2014being of a view that Abu-Jamal murdered Faulkner while the latter was making a lawful arrest in the line of police duty, and that Abu-Jamal had received a fair trial. District Attorney Lynne Abraham, who at times has supervised aspects of the Abu-Jamal case, is on record stating that it was the \"most open-and-shut murder case\" she had ever tried, and that Abu-Jamal:"}, {"context": " Never produced his own brother, who was present at the time of the murder, (yet) he has offered up various individuals who would claim that one trial witness or another must have lied; or that some other individual has only recently been discovered who has special knowledge about the murder; or that someone has fallen out of the skies, who is supposedly willing to confess to the murder of Officer Faulkner. Direct appeal of his conviction was considered and denied by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania on March 6, 1989, subsequently denying rehearing. On October 1, 1990, the Supreme Court of the United States denied his petition for writ of certiorari, and his petition for rehearing twice up to June 10, 1991."}, {"context": " On June 1, 1995 his death warrant was signed by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge. Its execution was suspended while Abu-Jamal pursued state post-conviction review, the outcome of which was a unanimous decision by six judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania on October 31, 1998 that all issues raised by him, including the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel, were without merit. The Supreme Court of the United States denied the petition for certiorari against that decision on October 4, 1999, enabling Governor Ridge to sign a second death warrant on October 13, 1999. Its execution in turn was stayed as Abu-Jamal commenced his pursuit of federal habeas corpus review."}, {"context": " Judge William H. Yohn Jr. of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania upheld the conviction but voided the sentence of death on December 18, 2001, citing irregularities in the original process of sentencing. Particularly, ...the jury instructions and verdict sheet in this case involved an unreasonable application of federal law. The charge and verdict form created a reasonable likelihood that the jury believed it was precluded from considering any mitigating circumstance that had not been found unanimously to exist."}, {"context": " He ordered the State of Pennsylvania to commence new sentencing proceedings within 180 days and ruled that it was unconstitutional to require that a jury's finding of circumstances mitigating against determining a sentence of death be unanimous. Eliot Grossman and Marlene Kamish, attorneys for Abu-Jamal, criticized the ruling on the grounds that it denied the possibility of a trial de novo at which they could introduce evidence that their client had been the subject of a frameup. Prosecutors also criticized the ruling; Maureen Faulkner described Abu-Jamal as a \"remorseless, hate-filled killer\" who would \"be permitted to enjoy the pleasures that come from simply being alive\" on the basis of the judgement. Both parties appealed."}, {"context": " On December 6, 2005, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit admitted four issues for appeal of the ruling of the United States District Court: The Third Circuit Court heard oral arguments in the appeals on May 17, 2007, at the United States Courthouse in Philadelphia. The appeal panel consisted of Chief Judge Anthony Joseph Scirica, Judge Thomas Ambro, and Judge Robert Cowen. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sought to reinstate the sentence of death, on the basis that Yohn's ruling was flawed, as he should have deferred to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court which had already ruled on the issue of sentencing, and the \"Batson\" claim was invalid because Abu-Jamal made no complaints during the original jury selection. Abu-Jamal's counsel told the Third Circuit Court that Abu-Jamal did not get a fair trial because the judge was a racist and the jury was both racially biased and misinformed. On March 27, 2008, the three-judge panel issued its opinion upholding Abu-Jamal's conviction while ordering a new sentencing hearing. Should the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania choose not to hold a new hearing, Abu-Jamal will be automatically sentenced to life in prison. On July 7, 2008, appellate counsel petitioned the court for rehearing \"en banc\", seeking reconsideration of the decision by the full Third Circuit panel of 12 judges. The petition was denied on July 22, 2008, and on April 6, 2009, the United States Supreme Court also refused to hear Abu-Jamal's appeal, letting the 1982 conviction stand. On January 19, 2010, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the appeals court to reconsider its decision to rescind the death sentence."}, {"context": " On December 7, 2011, District Attorney of Philadelphia R. Seth Williams announced that prosecutors, with the support of the victim's family, would no longer seek the death penalty for Abu-Jamal. Faulkner had indicated she did not wish to relive the trauma of another trial, and that it would be extremely difficult to present the case against Abu-Jamal again, after the passage of 30 years and the deaths of several key witnesses. Williams, the prosecutor, said that Abu-Jamal will spend the rest of his life in prison without the possibility of parole, a sentence that was reaffirmed by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania on July 9, 2013. After the press conference, Maureen Faulkner made an emotional statement condemning Abu-Jamal."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Alger", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Alger, 61 Mass. (7 Cush) 53, was decided by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1851. The majority opinion was written by Justice Lemuel Shaw. The defendant, Alger, was a Boston resident who owned property along the Boston harbor. The Plaintiff is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. There are two statutes involved in this case. In this case, Alger (Defendant) built a wharf in the Boston Harbor that extended beyond a line established by the Massachusetts legislature. Alger's wharf was otherwise within the geographical limits of the colony ordinance of 1647 and it did not impede or obstruct the public's navigation."}, {"context": " The issue in \"Commonwealth v. Alger\" is \"What are the just powers of the legislature to limit, control, or regulate the exercises and enjoyment of a property owner's rights.\" 61 Mass. 53, 65 (1851). In short, when, if ever can a regulation be a taking? The Massachusetts Supreme Court held the Massachusetts Legislature's statutes creating the lines was constitutional law, and the legislature had the authority to make that statute. The statute establishing the line was binding on Alger and he violated the line. Id. at 102."}, {"context": " Justice Shaw held it is settled principle that, \"every holder of property...holds it under the implied liability that his use of it may be so regulated, that it shall not be injurious to the equal enjoyment of others having an equal right to the enjoyment of their property, not injurious to the rights of the community.\" Id. at 84. Police power today is, \"generally, but vaguely understood in American jurisprudence to refer to state regulatory power,\" but really encompasses more. 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 471, 473(2004). In an attempt to define police power, Shaw stated, \"the government's power to enact such regulations for the good and welfare of the community as it sees fit, subject to the limitations that the regulation be both reasonable and constitutional.\" Id. at 479-80. Shaw goes on to explain that, \"It is much easier to perceive and realize the existence and sources of this power, then to mark its boundaries, or prescribe limits to its exercise.\" 61 Mass 53, 85(1851)."}, {"context": " Most notably, the court also attempts to differentiate between eminent domain and police power. In what is often referred to as the most important paragraph of the opinion, the court explains that police power, \"is very different from the right of eminent domain, the right of a government to take and appropriate private property to public use, whenever the public exigency requires it; which can be done only on condition of providing a reasonable compensation therefore. The power we allude to is rather the police power, the power vested in the legislature by the constitution, to make, ordain, and establish all manner of wholesome and reasonable laws, statutes and ordinance, either with penalties or without, not repugnant to the constitution, as they shall judge to be for the good and welfare of the commonwealth, and of the subjects of the same.\" Id."}, {"context": " It is often hard to distinguish between police power and eminent domain, Professor Benjamin Barros states, \"Shaw's attempt to make a principled distinction between eminent domain and the police power was understandable. In the 19th century, it was widely accepted that just compensation was required only for physical takings, and regulatory restraints on property were generally considered to be outside of the scope of the Takings clause. Categorizing the law that prohibited Alger from building his wharf as a regulation allowed Shaw to deny Alger's claim for compensation. By using the new term 'police power,' Shaw tried to explain this rule in terms of two distinct government powers, each serving a different purpose.\" 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 471, 480-81(2004). Shaw provides obvious uses of police power, such as prohibiting the use of warehouses for the storage of gunpowder when the warehouses are located near homes or highways, placing restraints on the height of wooden buildings in crowded areas and requiring them to be covered with incombustible material, and prohibiting buildings from being used as hospitals for contagious diseases or carrying on of noxious or offensive trades. 61 Mass. 53, 85-86(1851)."}, {"context": " Justice Shaw reasoned the Massachusetts statute was, \"not an appropriation of the property to a public use, but the restraint of an injurious private use by the owner, and is therefore not within the principle of property taken under the right of eminent domain.\" Id. at 86. Shaw also thought the court's holding in this case would promote certainty, \"Things done may or may not be wrong in themselves, or necessarily injurious and punishable as such at common law; but laws are passed declaring them offenses, and making them punishable, because they tend to injurious consequences; but more especially for the sake of having a definite, known and authoritative rule which all can understand and obey.\" 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 471, 481 (2004). Shaw gave an example of the certainty outcome he expected to obtain with this holding: \"The trademan needs to know, before incurring expenses, how near he may build his works without violating the law or committing a nuisance; builders of houses to know, to what distance they must keep from the obnoxious works already erected, in order to be sure of the protection of the law for their habitations. This requisite certainty and precision can only be obtained by a positive enactment...enforcing the rule thus fixed, by penalties.\" 61 Mass. 53, 96-97 (1851). Applying this reasoning to the facts in Alger, Professor Barros concluded that, \"the law challenged in Alger thus legitimately established a point beyond which wharves could not be built, and Alger's wharf was subject to such regulation even though it was not intrinsically harmful.\" 58 U. Miami L. Rev. 471, 482 (2004)."}, {"context": " Justice Shaw states that even though these prohibitions and restraints resulting from the Massachusetts statute may diminish the profits of the owner, the owners are not entitled to compensation because they are exercises of police power. (61 Mass. 53, 86). Justice Shaw's statement regarding compensation was generally accepted doctrine at the time, namely that the obligation to compensate was limited to exercises of eminent domain. 58 U. Miami L. Rev 471, 480(2004). However, passage of time \"would show this rule to be flawed.\" Id. at 481."}, {"context": " \"Commonwealth v. Alger\" helped signify a shift from community-based common-law regulation toward the modern regulatory state. Id. at 471 (2004). The case helped define what we now think of as the broad scope of policing regulations. The decision in \"Commonwealth v. Alger\" also breaks \"with a laissez-faire tradition and ushers in an era of positivist regulation.\" Id. at 482. Finally, the court's decision in \"Commonwealth v. Alger\" demonstrated an expanded interpretation of the new term \"police power\" with Shaw holding, \"that state authority to enact police regulations includes, but is not limited to, such doctrines as\" use your own as not to injure another's property, \"and that the legislature has broad authority to exercise this power.\" Id."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Aves", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Aves, 35 Mass. 193 (1836), was a case in the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court on the subject of transportation of slaves to free states. In August 1836, Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that slaves brought to Massachusetts \"for any temporary purpose of business or pleasure\" were entitled to freedom. The case was the most important legal victory for abolitionists in the 1830s and set a major precedent throughout the North. In 1836, Mary Aves Slater of New Orleans went to Boston to visit Thomas Aves, her father. She brought with her a six-year-old girl named Med who, under Louisiana law, was considered the property of Slater's husband, Samuel Slater. When members of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society learned that an enslaved girl was staying in Boston, they hired attorney Rufus Choate to bring the matter to court. Choate was joined by abolitionist attorneys Ellis Gray Loring and Samuel E. Sewall."}, {"context": " A writ of \"habeas corpus\" was served on Thomas Aves, the owner of the house where Med was staying. It was served in the name of a male abolitionist, Levin H. Harris, because it was considered unseemly in those days for women to take part in public affairs. On August 21, 1836, the case was brought before Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. Benjamin Robbins Curtis, later known for his dissent in the \"Dred Scott\" decision, represented Aves. Curtis argued that the doctrine of comity required Massachusetts to respect the laws of Louisiana, and therefore Mrs. Slater should be allowed to bring Med home with her."}, {"context": " Loring argued that the comity principle did not apply \"in doubtful cases,\" and that there was no consensus on slavery; England and several other European nations had a policy of \"disregarding the \"lex loci\" in the case of slaves,\" giving them \"immediate and entire liberty\" when they were brought there from another country. He characterized slavery as immoral, and expounded on the commonwealth's longstanding commitment to liberty. When giving his opinion, Shaw discussed several precedents in international law, including the British case of \"Somerset v. Stewart\" (1772), and the abolishment of slavery in Massachusetts. The only people who could be treated as slaves in Massachusetts, he reasoned, were fugitive slaves, and then only because the U.S. Constitution specifically required it. Therefore, Med had become free as soon as her alleged owner voluntarily brought her to Massachusetts. He cited several cases demonstrating that even in Southern states it was understood that a slave became free when voluntarily brought to a free state."}, {"context": " \"Commonwealth v. Aves\" was later used as a precedent in other Northern states. Connecticut used it in \"Jackson v. Bulloch\" (1837); New York and Pennsylvania used it in legislation declaring that slaves became free when brought to those states; and Ohio courts began using it in 1841. By the start of the Civil War, every Northern state other than Indiana, Illinois, and New Jersey granted freedom automatically to any slave brought within its borders. Med was placed in the custody of the abolitionist women, while her mother and siblings remained enslaved in New Orleans. The women renamed her Maria Somerset, after Maria Weston Chapman and the Somerset case. Apparently their interest in Med was more ideological than practical, because none of them adopted her, and at some point she went to live in an orphanage."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Brady", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Brady, 510 Pa. 123, 507 A.2d 66 (Pa. 1986), is a case decided by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania in 1986 which overruled close to two centuries of decisional law in Pennsylvania and established a common law exception to the rule against hearsay. The decision stands for the proposition that the recorded, adopted statement of a witness to a crime \"inconsistent with her testimony at trial\" is properly admitted for both purposes of impeachment and as substantive evidence: \"for its truth.\" In \"Commonwealth v. Lively\", the rule was extended with respect to \"verbatim contemporaneous recording[s] of . . . oral statement[s],\" provided the \"recordings\" are electronic, audiotape, or videotape."}, {"context": " The facts as set forth in the majority opinion are excerpted: Prior to the Supreme Court's decision in Brady, a criminal defendant could obtain a judgment of acquittal when the Commonwealth's case relied completely or principally on out of court statements by witnesses. The typical scenario would involve a witness that recanted or disavowed an earlier statement made to police officers (see Facts section \"infra\") concerning the defendant's liability. Under Brady and its progeny, it is then for the finder of fact to determine whether the witness is telling the truth now, or whether the witness was being truthful when he or she gave the first statement to the police."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Donoghue", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Donoghue, 250 Ky. 343, 63 S.W.2d 3 (1933), was a case decided by the Kentucky Court of Appeals involving conspiracy based on common law criminal offenses imported through reception statutes. M. Donoghue and others ran the Boone Loan Company in Kenton County, which was accused of charging usury rates of interest, or loan sharking. The judge created the crime in the case: \"a nefarious plan for the habitual exaction of gross injury.\" The Court of Appeals upheld the ability of judges to create common law crimes in the state of Kentucky. Then in 1975 a Kentucky state statute, KRS 500.020, prohibited the prosecution of common law crimes in Kentucky."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Eberle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Eberle, 474 Pa. 548, 379 A.2d 90 (1977), is a criminal case involving duty to retreat. The case established that in order to counter the justification or excuse of self defense, the prosecution must show that a defendant who used deadly force had a safe opportunity to escape."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Hunt", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Hunt, 45 Mass. 111 (1842) was a case in the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court on the subject of labor unions. Prior to \"Hunt\" the legality of labor combinations in America was uncertain. In March 1842, Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw ruled that labor combinations were legal provided that they were organized for a legal purpose and used legal means to achieve their goals. The history of labor disputes in America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a fishermen's strike on an island off the coast of Maine, and in 1677 twelve carmen were fined for going on strike in New York City. However, most instances of labor unrest during the colonial period were temporary and isolated, and rarely resulted in the formation of permanent groups of laborers for negotiation purposes. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest because strikes were not typically considered illegal. The only known case of a criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters' strike in Savannah, Georgia in 1746."}, {"context": " By the beginning of the 19th-century, after the revolution, little had changed. The career path for most artisans still involved apprenticeship under a master, followed by a move into independent production. However, over the course of the Industrial Revolution, this model rapidly changed, particularly in the major metropolitan areas. For instance, in Boston in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as \"master workman\". By 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these \"masters\" as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in New York City and Philadelphia. This shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the coastal cities created a larger population of potential laborers, which in turn allowed controllers of capital to invest in labor-intensive enterprises on a larger scale. Craft workers found that these changes launched them into competition with each other to a degree that they had not experienced previously, which limited their opportunities and created substantial risks of downward mobility that had not existed prior to that time."}, {"context": " These conditions led to the first labor combination cases in America. Over the first half of the 19th century, there were twenty-three known cases of indictment and prosecution for criminal conspiracy, taking place in six states: Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, Louisiana, Massachusetts and Virginia. The central question in these cases was invariably whether workmen in combination would be permitted to use their collective bargaining power to obtain benefits\u2014increased wages, decreased hours, or improved conditions\u2014which were beyond their ability to obtain as individuals. The cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions. However, in most instances the plaintiffs' desire was to establish favorable precedent, not to impose harsh penalties, and the fines were typically modest."}, {"context": " One of the central themes of the cases prior to the landmark decision in \"Commonwealth vs. Hunt\" was the applicability of the English common law in post-revolutionary America. Whether the English common law applied\u2014and in particular whether the common law notion that a conspiracy to raise wages was illegal applied\u2014was frequently the subject of debate between the defense and the prosecution. For instance, in \"Commonwealth v. Pullis\", a case in 1806 against a combination of journeymen cordwainers in Philadelphia for conspiring to raise their wages, the defense attorneys referred to the common law as arbitrary and unknowable and instead praised the legislature as the embodiment of the democratic promise of the revolution. In ruling that a combination to raise wages was \"per se\" illegal, Recorder Moses Levy strongly disagreed, writing that \"[t]he acts of the legislature form but a small part of that code from which the citizen is to learn his duties... [i]t is in the volumes of the common law we are to seek for information in the far greater number, as well as the most important causes that come before our tribunals.\""}, {"context": " As a result of the spate of convictions against combinations of laborers, the typical narrative of early American labor law states that, prior to \"Hunt\" in Massachusetts in 1842, peaceable combinations of workingmen to raise wages, shorten hours or ensure employment were illegal in the United States, as they had been under English common law. In England, criminal conspiracy laws were first held to include combinations in restraint of trade in the Court of the Star Chamber early in the 17th Century. The precedent was solidified in 1721 by \"The King v. Journeymen Tailors of Cambridge\", which found tailors guilty of a conspiracy to raise wages. Leonard Levy went so far as to refer to \"Hunt\" as the \"Magna Carta of American trade-unionism,\" illustrating its perceived standing as the major point of divergence in the American and English legal treatment of unions which, \"removed the stigma of criminality from labor organizations.\""}, {"context": " However, Levy's statement incorrectly characterizes the case law in American prior to \"Hunt\". \"Pullis\" was actually unusual in strictly following the English common law and holding that a combination to raise wages was by itself illegal. More often combination cases prior to \"Hunt\" did not hold that unions were illegal \"per se\", but rather found some other justification for a conviction. After \"Pullis\" in 1806, eighteen other prosecutions of laborers for conspiracies followed within the next three decades. However, only one such case, \"People v. Fisher\", also held that a combination for the purpose of raising wages was illegal. Several other cases held that the methods used by the unions, rather than the unions themselves, were illegal. For instance, in \"People v. Melvin\", cordwainers were again convicted of a conspiracy to raise wages. Unlike in \"Pullis\", however, the court held that the combination's existence itself was not unlawful, but nevertheless reached a conviction because the cordwainers had refused to work for any master who paid lower wages, or with any laborer who accepted lower wages, than what the combination had stipulated. The court held that methods used to obtain higher wages would be unlawful if they were judged to be deleterious to the general welfare of the community. \"Commonwealth v. Morrow\" continued to refine this standard, stating that, \"an agreement of two or more to the prejudice of the rights of others or of society\" would be illegal. Another line of cases, led by Justice John Gibson of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania's decision in \"Commonwealth v. Carlisle\", held that the motive of the combination, rather than simply its existence, was the key to illegality. Gibson wrote, \"Where the act is lawful for an individual, it can be the subject of a conspiracy, when done in concert, only where there is a direct intention that injury shall result from it.\" Still other courts rejected \"Pullis\"' rule of \"per se\" illegality in favor of a rule that asked whether the combination was a but-for cause of injury. Thus, as economist Edwin Witte stated, \"[T]he doctrine that a combination to raise wages is illegal was allowed to die by common consent. No leading case was required for its overthrow.\" Nevertheless, while \"Hunt\" was not the first case to hold that labor combinations were legal, it was the first to do so explicitly and in clear terms."}, {"context": " Members of the Boston Journeymen Bootmaker's Society, founded in 1835 and local to Boston, worked exclusively on high-quality boots. In 1835, in response to rampant inflation caused by Andrew Jackson's destruction of the Bank of the United States and the corresponding increase in the cost of living, the society raised their pay, by means of striking, to $1.75 per pair of boots produced. In 1836, they staged another strike, this time successfully raising their pay to $2.00 per pair. Their rates remained the same in 1840, when the incidents giving rise to \"Hunt\" occurred. However, by that time increases in the quality of the boots being produced prevented the bootmakers from producing pairs as quickly, essentially lowering their hourly rate in the midst of a severe economic downturn triggered by the Panic of 1837."}, {"context": " One journeyman bootworker, Jeremiah Horne, was in a dispute with the Society. Horne began to have disagreements with the Society when he agreed to do extra work on a pair of boots without charging for the extra labor. The Society imposed a fine on Horne, which he refused to pay. Ultimately the fine was forgiven when Horne's master, Isaac Wait, agreed to pay Horne for the work at the Society-fixed rate. Horne nevertheless continued to breach the Society's rules, and soon had incurred another $7 in fees. The Society demanded that he pay. When Horne refused, the Society threatened a walkout of Wait's shop and Wait fired him."}, {"context": " Horne responded by entering a complaint with the Suffolk County Attorney, Samuel D. Parker, and by sending his cousin, Dennis, who was also a member of the Society, to try to reach a settlement with them. Dennis attended a Society meeting in early October 1840, but was ridiculed and stormed out. A few days later, on October 8, an indictment was entered charging that the Society was a criminal conspiracy to impoverish employers and non-union laborers. Seven members of the Society were named as defendants. Although there was no evidence that the Society planned to strike or that there was any large-scale disagreement between employers and the Society, Parker decided to take the case. The trial began on October 14 and ended on October 22."}, {"context": " At trial, the prosecution, led by Parker, focused on proving that the Society was coercive. Wait, Horne's master, testified that \"he did not feel at liberty to employ any but society men,\" because he \"would not wish to lose five or six good workmen for the sake of one.\" However, he also testified that he had not been oppressed and that he had benefited from the Society's existence. Parker tried to call Horne himself to testify, but the defense successfully prevented his testimony from being heard on the ground that he was an atheist. The prosecution, however, was able to directly ask several masters, over the defense's objection, whether the Society was coercive. Some said yes."}, {"context": " The Society hired Robert Rantoul, Jr., a strong Democrat and a political opponent to the conservative Whig Party, to represent them. Rantoul's defense focused on establishing the benefits of the Society. He called witnesses who testified that the wages stipulated by the Society were reasonable and that non-members were also able to attain wages at the same rate. Non-workers were only prevented from working at a handful of the larger shops. Rantoul also called representatives from other professional organizations, such as the Boston Medical Association and the Boston Bar, of which the Judge, the District Attorney, the Attorney General, Daniel Webster and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Court, Lemuel Shaw, were all members. Rantoul also solicited testimony that the Bar Association fixed minimum fees for which its members could receive and forbade members from advising or consulting any non-member attorney. He hoped to show the jury that professional organizations such the Bootmaker's Society were not uncommon in Boston."}, {"context": " Rantoul also argued to the jury that there was no law in Massachusetts against a conspiracy in restraint of trade (At that time in Massachusetts, juries still served as triers of both law and fact). Rantoul told the jury, \"We have not adopted the whole mass of the common law of England. [...] Law against acts done in restraint of trade belong to that portion of the law of England which we have not adopted.\" Rantoul argued that, as the conspiracy itself was not unlawful, the question was whether the defendants had injured anyone through an illegal act. He stated, \"We contend they have a perfect right to form a society for their mutual interest and improvement. [...] To substantiate these charges [...] they must prove actual force, fraud and nuisance.\" Rantoul's emphasis on the requirement of injury recalled Gibson's opinion in \"Carlisle\" twenty years earlier, and drew from the entire line of cases opposing \"Pullis\" and \"Fisher\"."}, {"context": " Rantoul's efforts, however, were greatly undermined by Judge Thacher's emotional charge to the jury. Thacher told the jury that if societies such as the Bootmaker's Society were justified by the law and became common, it would \"render property insecure, and make it the spoil of the multitude, would annihilate property, and involve society in a common ruin.\" Thacher also specifically rebutted Rantoul with regard to the status of the common law, stating that \"conspiracy is an offence at common law, as adopted in Massachusetts, and by this decision and that of this court you must abide.\" Levy wrote that Thacher's charge, \"practically directed a verdict of guilty.\""}, {"context": " After Thacher gave his instructions the jury returned a conviction against all seven defendants. Rantoul appealed the case to the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts. Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw held that the union's actions were not unlawful, because the objects of the union and the action taken of threatening to stop work to prevent Horne's continued employment, were not unlawful in the law of Massachusetts. This contrasted with the laws in England in 1721, in \"R v Journeymen Tailors of Cambridge\". The union could exercise \"a power which might be exerted for useful and honorable purposes, or for dangerous and pernicious ones.\" But only if an independently unlawful act could be found, which was clearly laid down in the law, could a combination of people to do the same thing also be unlawful. He pointed out that competition among businesses were often treated the same, and so the economic loss to the employer or Horne could not count as actionable damage. The workers were \"free to work for whom the please, or not to work, if they so prefer... We cannot perceive that it is criminal for men to agree together to exercise their own acknowledged rights, in such a manner as best to subserve their own interests.\" Shaw CJ's judgment went as follows."}, {"context": " Shaw's landmark opinion in favor of labor was incongruous with his politics and other jurisprudence. Shaw wrote his opinion in \"Hunt\" just one week after he decided another landmark labor case, \"Farwell v. Boston & Worcester R.R. Corp\". In that case, Shaw upheld the fellow-servant rule by deciding that a railroad company could not be held liable when a mistake by an employee operating a rail switch caused an injury to another employee. As the outcome in \"Farwell\" would suggest, Shaw was not ordinarily considered a friend of labor. Walter Nelles wrote that, \"The constituency to which [Shaw] was keenest comprised State Street and Beacon Hill, the bankers, the textile manufacturers, the railway builders.\" Nelles theorized that Shaw was more concerned with tariff protection than with labor concerns, and that his decision in \"Hunt\" was a product of strategic consideration. Nelles notes that in 1842, in the middle of a depression, labor unrest in the textile mills that drove much of Boston's economy was very unlikely. However, Whigs like Shaw may have been concerned that agitating the working class would help bring the Democratic party to power in the election of 1844. Whigs worried that the Democrats would abolish the tariffs protecting the weakened textile industry. Shaw's decision in \"Hunt\", therefore, may have been motivated by a desire to placate Boston's working class."}, {"context": " Whatever Shaw's motivation, his opinion in \"Hunt\" provided a clear statement that labor combinations which used legal means to achieve legal ends were lawful. The degree of \"Hunt's\" impact is a matter of some debate. Levy notes that in the forty years after \"Hunt\" was decided, the case served as the authoritative statement of the law on labor combinations. However, as favorable as \"Hunt\" was for labor unions, its holding still left the door open for courts to convict strikers by declaring certain labor activity criminal, or by holding the purpose of a strike to be an unlawful interference with private enterprise. Also, Witte notes that there were limited opportunities to apply \"Hunt\" until the end of the Civil War. Witte was able to find only three conspiracy cases brought anywhere in the United States between 1842 and 1863."}, {"context": " However, between 1863 and 1880 the pace of conspiracy indictments picked up again. At least fifteen cases were brought during that time. Despite \"Hunt's\" softening of the conspiracy doctrine, convictions were still obtained and harsh sentences imposed. For instance, in 1869, members of a mine committee in Pottsville, Pennsylvania were found guilty of conspiracy, sentenced to jail for thirty days and heavily fined. Prosecutions in this period led to labor efforts to gain relief through legislation. In 1869, Pennsylvania passed a statute declaring labor unions legal if formed for \"mutual aid, benefit, and protection\" and when convictions continued to be obtained, passed another law in 1872 providing that laborers could collectively refuse to work for any employer. The need for such legislation suggests that \"Hunt\", while beneficial for labor, was hardly a guarantee that workers would be able to organize without fear of legal repercussion."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Jennison", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Nathaniel Jennison was a decisive court case in Massachusetts in 1783 which effectively abolished slavery in that state. It was the third in a series of cases which became known as the \"Quok Walker cases\". Nathaniel Jennison was arrested for beating Quock Walker and indicted on a criminal charge of assault and battery in September 1781. The trial before the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts was held in April 1783. Jennison's defense was that Walker was a runaway slave but Walker countered that the had made slavery illegal in 1780. Chief Justice William Cushing accepted this argument and directed the jury that the issue of whether Walker had been freed or not was irrelevant because slavery was no longer constitutional. The jury convicted Jennison who was fined forty shillings.  The case was not widely publicized but it made it clear that the law would not defend the property rights of slave-owners. Slavery (or the willingness to reveal its presence) declined so that, by the time of the 1790 census, no slaves were recorded in this state."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Kneeland", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Abner Kneeland was an 1838 Massachusetts state court case, notable for being the last time a court in the United States jailed a defendant for blasphemy. The defendant, Abner Kneeland, was a mercurial preacher who had been a Universalist, but had since converted to a form of pantheism. He published letters in which he expounded on his recently adopted pantheist philosophy, denying any God other than Nature as well as the uniquely particular divinity of Jesus Christ. Already a controversial figure, he was taken to court after he admitted having written these statements. The legal indictment was for \"willfully blaspheming the holy name of God\" and for his public disavowal of Christ. Though the statements used for the prosecution were written in 1833, delays and restarts of the trial meant that the final case was heard in 1838."}, {"context": " At trial, Kneeland raised three defenses of his actions: The court was unconvinced by Kneeland's claims. It ruled that regardless of his beliefs, he had libeled God's name with malicious intent, rendering Kneeland's first point moot. As for the second, the court examined other states' colonial charters and pointed out that they too had reconciled blasphemy laws with guarantees of religious freedom, and that the law \"was passed very soon after the adoption of the constitution, and no doubt, many members of the convention which framed the constitution, were members of the legislature which passed this law.\" Therefore, they must not conflict. The court dismissed the third claim out of hand, saying that if unlimited freedom of the press was allowed,  Kneeland was sentenced to sixty days in prison. In his support, a petition was put forward by for his pardon under grounds of free speech by William Ellery Channing, signed by various prominent people including Ralph Waldo Emerson and William Lloyd Garrison. However, a counter-petition was signed with even more signatures; Kneeland stayed in prison and served his entire term."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Malone", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Malone, 354 Pa. 180, 47 A.2d 445 (1946), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania that affirmed the conviction of a teenager for second degree murder. The teenagers had played a modified version of Russian roulette called Russian Poker, in which they took turns aiming and pulling the trigger of a revolver at \"each other\", rather than at their own heads. Therefore \"without an intent to kill or harm\", Malone had pointed the gun at his friend's head and pulled the trigger, killing him. However, the court ruled that \"When an individual commits an act of gross recklessness without regard to the probability that death to another is likely to result, that individual exhibits the state of mind required to uphold a conviction of manslaughter even if the individual did not intend for death to ensue.\""}, {"context": " The case is often used to exemplify depraved-heart murder - that is, cases where there is such recklessness and indifference to life and risk of death as to fulfill the mens rea for murder despite the fact that the killing of the specific victim was unintentional. It has not yet been established whether simply participating in a game of Russian roulette in which another participant kills himself by his own hand could constitute manslaughter or some lesser form of conspiracy or homicide for others involved who survived.  According to the defense, Malone loaded the gun chamber adjacent to the firing chamber and did not expect the gun to go off when he pulled the trigger. The court used common law analysis to determine that a game of Russian roulette evinced malice and recklessness towards a very serious risk, thus fulfilling the mens rea required for depraved heart murder despite the fact that the killing of the specific victim was unintentional."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Matos", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Matos, 672 A.2d 769 (1996), is a Pennsylvania State Supreme Court case which further developed Pennsylvania Constitutional Law as affording greater privacy protections than those guaranteed by the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Specifically, where police possess neither probable cause nor reasonable suspicion, contraband discarded by a person fleeing a police officer are the fruits of an illegal seizure. The case departs from the ruling of \"California v. Hodari D.\", 499 U.S. 621 (1991), which held that fleeing suspects cannot be considered seized for purposes of the U.S. Constitution. It is a part of a family of state case law concerning the phenomenon of \"new judicial federalism.\" Pennsylvania criminal defense attorneys may cite the case as part of a motion to suppress physical evidence where the defendant discards drugs, weapons, or other contraband while fleeing police."}, {"context": " The Pennsylvania Supreme Court consolidated three cases for its ruling. Police responded to a radio call that unknown persons were selling narcotics. When police arrived on scene, three males including appellant Matos, fled as the officers approached. During the chase, Matos discarded a plastic bag containing cocaine. The Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County suppressed the drug evidence and the Superior Court reversed. Police approached appellant McFadden in a patrol car. McFadden looked in their direction and ran. The Officers chased McFadden who discarded a firearm into some bushes before the arrest. The Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County suppressed the evidence of the handgun at trial and the Superior Court reversed."}, {"context": " Police saw two men standing on the sidewalk. Officers approached to speak with the two men while appellant Carroll stood with his hands inside his jacket pockets. Police asked Carroll to remove his hands from his pockets and Carroll turned and fled. Carrol ran into an alley, but tripped and fell. Packets of cocaine fell from his pockets. Carroll was arrested and a search incident to arrest yielded more cocaine. The Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County suppressed the drug evidence and the Superior Court reversed."}, {"context": " The court considered whether pursuit by a police officer constituted a seizure for purposes of Article I, Section 8 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. The Supreme Court of the United States had ruled that it did not for purposes of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The court considered the question of whether to extend greater protective rights under state law for the same issue. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court followed the decision in \"Commonwealth v. Edmunds\", which outlined a four-pronged test for state constitutional issues. \"Edmunds\" rejected the federal \"good faith exception\" to the exclusionary rule of \"United States v. Leon\", 468 U.S. 897 (1984) and established four factors which must be addressed whenever a legal issue implicates the state constitution:"}, {"context": " Under the first and second factors, the court noted that the Pennsylvania equivalent to the Fourth Amendment was actually older, having originated with clause 10 of the original Constitution of 1776, and remaining unchanged for over 200 years. The court recognized that the exclusionary rule under Pennsylvania law went further than the U.S. Constitution. Where federal protection was meant solely to deter police conduct, state protection was \"unshakably linked to a right of privacy in [the] Commonwealth.\""}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Mitchneck", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Mitchneck, 130 Pa. Super. 433, 198 A. 463 (1938), is a criminal case involving the meaning of theft and ownership. Mitchneck operated a coal mine. Mitchneck's employees signed orders directing Mitchneck to deduct amounts from their wages to pay their bills at a store. Mitchneck did not pay their bills. Mitchneck was convicted of fraudulent conversion of the employee's money. The Pennsylvania Superior Court reversed the conviction and ordered acquittal. The court found that although Mitchneck owed money to the employees, any money held by Mitchneck (if it ever existed) did not yet belong to the employees, since it never entered into their hands in order to transfer ownership. The court held that criminal court cannot be used as a substitute for civil court to collect a debt.  The court wrote,"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Morrow", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Morrow (1815) was a Pennsylvania decision by the Adjourned Court of Quarter Sessions for the County of Allegheny on the issue of Labor unionization. The jury in this case agreed that the master shoemakers, the journeymen, and the public, were endangered by the association of journeymen and returned a verdict of guilty on charges of conspiracy. The Pittsburgh Cordwainers and the Court's ruling on \"Commonwealth v. Morrow\" reaffirmed the Court's views on the earliest forms of American labor unionization \u2014that activities performed by these unions were unlawful. Prosecutors summoned former members of the journeymen cordwainers and master journeymen, most of the owners of the shops. These witnesses provided accounts of collective bargaining, which drove nonmembers out of the work force by refusing to work with them. Defendants argued that every man has a right to determine his own desired wages and doing so as a collective unit was lawful. This court case established the formation of unions and its activities as unlawful, in the form of conspiracy. The legality of unions as a legitimate entity would be established 25\u00a0years later in \"Commonwealth v. Hunt\", a Massachusetts Supreme Court Decision. \"Commonwealth v. Morrow\", however, serves as an example of early unionization of workers in the United States, and the challenges it faced."}, {"context": " In nearly all the major cities, shoemakers (cordwainers) and printers were among the first to form workingmen's societies; carpenters, masons, hatters, riggers, and tailors also found it worthwhile to organize. As the number of workers in manufacturing industries rose, so did their activities to organize for their benefit. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania accused George Morrow, along with 21 other members of the journeymen cordwainers, of \"unlawfully, perniciously and deceitfully, designing and intending to form and unite themselves into an unlawful society for the purpose of unjustly raising the price of their wages and the wages of all journeymen cordwainers in Pittsburgh.\" The trial was held at an Adjourned Court of Quarter Sessions for the County of Allegheny at Pittsburgh on December 10, 1815, The counsel for the prosecution was Attorney General Samuel Douglas, along with Henry Baldwin and William Wilkins. The counsel for the defendants was Walter Forward and Parker Campbell."}, {"context": " Before the landmark decision in \"Commonwealth v. Hunt\", several generations of Americans, including lawyers, judges and legislators, have been convinced by their teachers to believe that the most effective legal weapon against the struggling labor union was the doctrine that concerted activities were conspiracies, and for that reason, illegal. Douglas argued that the indictment contained three counts. The first was for combining and conspiring together to form a society for purposes \"highly prejudicial both to individuals and society in general.\" The second charge was the \"formation of that society in pursuance of such confederacy.\" The third charge was the \"acts resulting from that confederacy injurious to employers, to journeymen, to Pittsburgh, and the whole community. Witnesses for prosecution included former members of the journeymen cordwainers, such as Adam Moreland and John M. Phillips, and master cordwainers, such as Walter Glenn. Adam Moreland, one of the first members of the society testified, \u201cthe means we took to get our wages were a turn-out.., scabbing a shop is leaving it (society) and those who worked there after that were scabs. John M. Phillips, a relatively new resident of Pittsburgh and former member of the journeymen cordwainers, testified that the manner of joining the society involved putting a printed bill of wages in the Bible, and then swearing to work for no less wage than the bill contained.\" He further claimed that many members of the society, including himself, were compelled to take the oath or leave the society, and consequence was you would be expelled from the town\u2026as no one would work or board with an expelled member.\" Walter Glenn employed 3 of the journeymen defendants (Mindeher, Meloney, and Hughes) along with his (Glenn's) brother. When Glenn declined to sign the turn-out and the new prices requested by Mindeher, Meloney, and Hughes, they all left him, including his brother. When asked to return to work week after turn-out, he said he could not work on account that he \u201cwould gain enemies by it or be found fault with him.\" He later testified that he was forced to dump $1100\u2013$1200 worth of stock at one point as a result of the wage demands by the journeymen."}, {"context": " Walter Forward, counsel for the defendants, argued three main points. First, he argued, \"every man has a right to affix his own prices to his own labors, and it was not a crime to have a uniform price for price they pleased for their work.\" Secondly he argued that the wage demands by the journeymen were reasonable and there were no proven charges of extortion. The third argument was the fact that journeymen wages, before the creation of such association, were too low and could not obtain fair price by any other means than the association.\" Mr. Moreland, in his earlier testimony, admits to this fact as being true."}, {"context": " The jury in this case agreed that the master shoemakers, the journeymen, and the public were endangered by the association of journeymen and returned a verdict of guilty of conspiracy, although the court fined the defendants only $1 each, plus prosecution costs. The early craft societies, mainly shoemakers and printers, were typically transitory. Cyclical economic downturns routinely dissolved worker collective actions, and wage reductions, though resisted, were common during downturns in the economy. Another deterrent to unionization came from court actions. Conservative judges, in their instructions to juries, contended that union action per se was illegal. \"Commonwealth v. Morrow\" was first of many of the legal cases that challenged the \"common law police power maintained in many of the preceding cases.\" The case largely followed what had by now emerged as a normal pattern\u2014prosecution disclaimers of hostility to the journeymen and promises of a light penalty."}, {"context": " The case was a breakthrough in that the court indicted the defendants, not for demanding high prices, but for employing unlawful means to extort those prices. It also redefined the definition of conspiracy as a \"combination to effect an unlawful purpose or to effect a lawful purpose by unlawful means. Threats and violence would qualify as conspiracy, but not the simple act of writing and adopting a constitution or a collective refusal to work unless a nonmember were discharged.\u201d \"Commonwealth v. Morrow\" was one of the many cases that helped transform labor unionization from an act of conspiracy to legitimate means of personal expression. Over the next few years, the apparent precariousness of the journeymen's legal position would become somewhat qualified, as sum by the decline in the incidence of prosecution regarding unionization and collective bargaining of wages."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. O'Malley", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. O'Malley, 97 Mass. 584 (1867), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of Massachusetts that overturned a conviction for embezzlement because the evidence supported a case for larceny, even though the defendant had previously been acquitted of larceny. The case illustrates the problem of gaps in similar common law offenses with technical differences, and this problem was later addressed by consolidation of the common law offenses in things like the Model Penal Code."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Pullis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Pullis, 3 Doc. Hist. 59 (1806) was a US labor law case, and the first reported case arising from a labor strike in the United States. It decided that striking workers were illegal conspirators. In 1794 Philadelphia shoemakers organized the \"Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers\" (the name came from the cordovan leather they worked with) in an effort to secure stable wages. Over the next decade, the union secured some wage increases. Through 1804, the Journeymen received moderate wage increases. In 1805 the union struck for higher wages. The strike collapsed after the union leaders were indicted for the crime of conspiracy."}, {"context": " The jury trial was in the Philadelphia Mayor\u2019s Court, which was not a court of record. The only report historians have today consists of shorthand notes by Thomas Lloyd, a young Jeffersonian printer who later published the proceedings. Eight leaders of the Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers were brought to trial and accused of conspiring to increase their pay rates after leading an unsuccessful strike for higher wages. The employers, not the government, paid the prosecution's expenses. The arguments in \"Pullis\" promoted the idea '\"that workers were transitory, irresponsible, and dangerous\", and were, thus, properly the subject of judicial control."}, {"context": " After a three-day trial, the jury found the defendants guilty of \"a combination to raise their wages\". The union of Philadelphia Journeymen Shoemakers was convicted of and bankrupted by charges of criminal conspiracy. The defendants were fined US$8 each (the cost of one week's wages) and made to pay the costs of the suit. The law established in this case, that labor unions are illegal conspiracies, would remain the law until \"Commonwealth v. Hunt\", tried in Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Sharpless", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v Sharpless (2 Serg & Rawle 91 (Sup. Ct. Penn. 1815) ) was an obscenity trial. An action was brought by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania against one Jesse Sharpless and five others in 1815. The item concerned was a painting, exhibited by the defendant for money, that showed \"a man in an obscene, impudent, and indecent posture with a woman.\" The name of the painting has not been preserved. His defense was that the painting was located in his home and not in a public place. He was ultimately found guilty. He appealed, as there was no statute in Pennsylvania against obscenity at the time. The judgement was affirmed, since the prosecution of obscenity was not barred.  The language used in court documents is similar to that used in the charge against Peter Holmes in 1821, for the publication of \"Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure\". (\"Com. v. Holmes\", 17 Mass. 336)"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Twitchell", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Twitchell, 416 Mass. 114, 617 N.E.2d 609 (1993), was the most prominent of a series of criminal cases, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, in which parents who were members of the Christian Science church were prosecuted for the deaths of children whose medical conditions had been treated only by Christian Science prayer. In 1988, Massachusetts prosecutors charged David and Ginger Twitchell with manslaughter in the 1986 death of their two-year-old son Robyn. Robyn Twitchell died of a peritonitis caused by a bowel obstruction that medical professionals declared would have been easily correctable."}, {"context": " The Twitchells' defense contended that the couple were within their First Amendment rights to treat their son's illness with prayer and that Massachusetts had recognized this right in an exemption to the statute outlawing child neglect. The Twitchells were convicted of involuntary manslaughter. They were sentenced to ten years probation and required to bring their remaining children to regular visits to a pediatrician. The conviction was overturned in 1993 by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court on a legal technicality. Robert Gittens, speaking for the prosecutors' office commented, \"the law is now clear: parents cannot sacrifice the lives of their children in the name of religious freedom.\""}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Wasson", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Kentucky v. Wasson, 842 S.W.2d 487 (Ky. 1992), was a 1992 Kentucky Supreme Court decision striking down that state's criminalization of consensual sodomy between same-sex partners, holding that this was a violation of both the equal protection of the laws and the right to privacy. The Kentucky case helped pave the way for many other states and eventually the United States Supreme Court to issue similar rulings. At that time, Kentucky law criminalized consensual sexual relations between people of the same sex, even if conducted in private. Specifically, the law criminalized genital-oral (oral sex), genital-anal (anal sex), and anal-oral (rimming) sex -but only between partners of the same sex. Such sexual activities between mixed-sex (male-female) couples were legal. Such conduct was a misdemeanor punishable by up to 12 months in jail and a fine of up to $500. Solicitation of same was also a misdemeanor, punishable by up to 90 days in jail and a fine of up to $250."}, {"context": " Historically, Kentucky's sodomy statutes had changed over time. The 1860 sodomy statute criminalized anal penetration by a penis and applied to both male-female couples and male-male couples. Because the law focused exclusively on penile-anal penetration, consensual sex between women was technically legal in Kentucky until 1974. In fact, in 1909 the Kentucky Supreme Court issued a ruling in \"Commonwealth v. Poindexter\" involving two African-American men arrested for consensual oral sex. In this decision the court upheld that the then current sodomy law did not criminalize oral sex but only anal sex."}, {"context": " In 1974 Kentucky revised its statutes as part of a penal code reform advocated by the American Law Institute. While the American Law Institute urged states to decriminalize consensual sodomy and other victimless crimes, the Kentucky legislature chose to decriminalize anal sex involving male-female couples but to broaden the new statute to criminalize anal-genital, oral-genital, and oral-anal sexual contact involving same-sex couples (both male-male and female-female couples). Thus, the 1974 revised statute decriminalized consensual anal sex for mixed-sex couples but expanded criminalization of sexual acts to include both male and female same-sex couples."}, {"context": " Jeffrey Wasson, a 23-year-old nursing student, was arrested in 1986 and charged with solicitation of same-sex sodomy as the result of an undercover sting operation conducted by the Lexington police. The police selected an area and conversed with men to see if they would be solicited for sex under the 1974 statute defining fourth degree sodomy as actual or solicitation of consensual sodomy. As Wasson left The Bar Complex, a Lexington gay bar, to walk to his car, an undercover officer engaged Wasson in the parking lot and taped approximately 20 minutes of a conversation with Wasson. Near the end of the conversation Wasson invited the officer to come home with him. When prodded for details, Wasson suggested sexual activities that violated the Kentucky statute prohibiting homosexual activity. Wasson was one of 29 men arrested during this police sting. Rather than paying the fine, he sought legal representation to contest the law. In its recitation of the facts, the Kentucky Supreme Court noted that there \"was no suggestion that sexual activity would occur anyplace other than in the privacy of Wasson's home. The sexual activity was intended to have been between consenting adults. No money was offered or solicited.\""}, {"context": " The initial trial court, Fayette District Court, dismissed the charges holding that the law was unconstitutional. Upon appeal, the Fayette Circuit Court reached the same conclusion. The Commonwealth appealed that decision. The Kentucky Supreme Court granted a transfer, bypassing the Kentucky Court of Appeals. In a 4\u20133 ruling, the Court struck down anti-sodomy laws in effect since 1860, declaring them unconstitutional under Kentucky law with the declaration that it violated both the right to privacy and the right to equal protection under the law found in the Kentucky Constitution. Justice Charles M. Leibson authored the majority opinion, which noted:"}, {"context": " More significantly, Kentucky has a rich and compelling tradition of recognizing and protecting individual rights from state intrusion in cases similar in nature, found in the Debates of the Kentucky Constitutional Convention of 1890 and cases from the same era when that Constitution was adopted... Kentucky cases recognized a legally protected right of privacy based on our own constitution and common law tradition long before the United States Supreme Court first took notice of whether there were any rights of privacy inherent in the Federal Bill of Rights."}, {"context": " Asserting that \"state constitutional jurisprudence in this area is not limited by the constraints inherent in federal due process analysis\", the majority opinion held that the law as written and enforced \"infringed upon the equal protection guarantees found in the Kentucky Constitution.\" The case was styled \"Commonwealth of Kentucky v. Jeffery Wasson\", 842 S.W.2d 487. The decision was handed down on September 24, 1992. The case was among the early ones to strike down same-sex sodomy laws on the grounds that such laws violated the Equal Protection doctrine. Four other states preceded Kentucky in striking down same-sex sodomy laws. New York in \"New York v. Onofre\" and Pennsylvania in \"Commonwealth v. Bonadio\" did so on grounds similar to those cited by the Kentucky Supreme Court. A lower appellate court in Texas and the Wayne County Circuit Court in Michigan had also struck down same-sex sodomy laws by that time, though neither state's highest court had yet issued such a holding. Those cases were \"State v. Morales\" and \"Michigan Organization for Human Rights v. Kelley\". Citing these cases, the Kentucky court wrote: \"Thus our decision, rather than being the leading edge of change, is but a part of the moving stream.\" In time this statement was proven correct, as other states and eventually the United States Supreme Court reached the same conclusion as Kentucky had in \"Wasson\"."}, {"context": " At the time, the decision - which was based solely on interpretation of the Kentucky Constitution - was at odds with federal case law on the same subject. The United States Supreme Court had previously held in \"Bowers v. Hardwick\" that federal constitutional protection of the right of privacy was not implicated in laws penalizing homosexual sodomy. It was not until years after the \"Wasson\" case that the United States Supreme Court revisited the issue and reversed its holding in \"Lawrence v. Texas\"."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Watkins", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Walter Watkins was a Pennsylvania court case wherein a Columbia County Court ruled that poker was a game of skill not luck, thus not \"illegal gambling\" per the state statutes. Later, On April 2, 2010, a Pennsylvania Superior Court overturned the ruling declaring poker to be a game of luck. In December 2008, Walter Watkins and Diane Dent were charged with 20 counts of violating state statutes against gambling. Pennsylvania law alleged that the defendants \"unlawfully allowed persons to collect and assemble for the purpose of unlawful gambling\" and \"unlawfully solicit or invite any person to visit any unlawful gambling place for the purpose of gambling.\" Walter Watkins was hosting poker games in his garage, and Diane Dent was serving the role of dealer. The house did not take rake, but players were expected to tip the dealer. The operation was infiltrated by an undercover police officer, who testified at the trial."}, {"context": " Both the state and the defense attorneys agreed to the principal facts in the case, but agreed that the \"controlling issue\" was whether or not Texas hold 'em is illegal gambling under the state's criminal code. In his opinion, Judge Thomas A. James Jr. determined that the question was if Texas hold 'em is a \"game of skill or a game of chance... if chance predominates Texas hold 'em is gambling. If skill predominates, it is not gambling.\" This interpretation comes from a 1983 state Supreme Court ruling, which declared, \u201cfor a game to constitute gambling, it must be a game where chanced predominates rather than skill.\u201d"}, {"context": " In evaluating the case, Judge James explained the \"Dominant Factor Test\" that most jurisdictions use in cases dealing with what is and is not gambling. The Dominant Factor Test relies upon four criteria: In reaching his conclusion, the Judge pointed out that there are over 600 books on the subject of poker strategy and that all agree that poker is a game of skill. He quoted Mike Caro's book \"Secrets of Winning Poker\" \"money flows from the bad players to the good players.\" He also cited \"a number of mathematical studies that link 'poker and economics.'\" One study in particular showed that \"Beginning poker players rely on big hands and lucky draws. Expert poker players use their skill to minimize their losses on their bad hands and maximize their profits on their big hands.\""}, {"context": " James cited a 2005 study \"In Poker: Public Policy, Law, Mathematics, and the Future of American Tradition.\" The study compared the results of black jack, roulette, poker, and other forms of gambling. \"If you ask who are the top five poker players in the world, you will receive a meaningful response because skill is a determining factor. But if you ask who are the top five roulette players in the world, the response is utterly meaningless: roulette is purely a game of chance... The collective expert opinion is unequivocal: poker is a game of skill, and in the long run, a skilled player will beat an unskilled player... Poker is the one and only [card] game where a skilled player may hold bad cards for hours and still win the money.\""}, {"context": " Poker Player Alliance Executive Director John Pappas hails the decision as a key victory in legalizing online poker. Since the ruling, speculation has emerged on the web that online poker sites might take the US to court to overturn the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act prohibition against online poker. The United States has, however, in previous litigation shown a preference to pay fines when countries sue it for trade restrictions than reverse the UIGEA. The state appealed the verdict and on April 10, 2010 the state's appellate court ruled 2-1 that the game is a game dominated by luck. The appellate court relied primarily upon older rulings from states with a less defined Dominant Factor Test. In his dissenting opinion, Judge Robert Colville did not declare poker to be a game of skill, but instead said that the Commonwealth failed to prove that poker was a game of chance.  The state opted not to attempt a retrial...offering community service to both Walter Watkins and Diane Dent and a full expunging of the record. Both did 20 hours of community service."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. Welansky", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. Welansky, Supreme Court of Massachusetts, 55 N.E.2d 902 (1944), is a criminal case about the Cocoanut Grove fire that illustrates principles of negligent homicide and reckless homicide in the case where there is not an affirmative act, but a failure to act (omission) when there is a duty of care. Barnett Welansky was found guilty of wanton or reckless homicide in the Cocoanut Grove fire. Welansky maintained and operated the Cocoanut Grove nightclub, knew or should have known that the club fire escapes were inadequate and in violation of building safety codes, and while Welansky was offsite, the building caught fire and hundreds could not escape and died.  The court wrote:"}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth v. York", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth v. York, 50 Massachusetts (9Met) 93 (1845), is a precedent setting American criminal case in which it was determined that although the prosecution must establish all of the elements of a crime beyond a reasonable doubt, the defendant must prove the defense of provocation, which is about the defendant's mental state. This was consistent with Blackstone's \"Commentaries\" that the prosecution must prove the defendant committed a criminal act, and the defendant must then prove \"circumstances of justification, excuse and alleviation\". In federal courts, but not state all courts, this changed with \"Davis v. United States\" (1895), which set precedent that there is a presumption of innocence as to having a mental state of being \"legally capable of committing crime\"."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth's attorney", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth's attorney is the title given to the elected prosecutor of felony crimes in Kentucky and Virginia. Other states refer to similar prosecutors as district attorney or state's attorney. The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings."}, {"context": " A commonwealth's attorney is the highest law enforcement official in his or her jurisdiction and in many jurisdictions supervises a staff which includes a chief deputy commonwealth's attorney, deputy commonwealth's attorneys and assistant commonwealth's attorneys. The prosecutors decide what criminal charges to bring, and when and where a person will answer to those charges. In carrying out their duties, prosecutors have the authority to investigate persons, grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals, and plea bargain with defendants."}, {"context": " A commonwealth's attorney is a constitutional officer, which means that the job is established in the state's constitution which defines the position, the broad powers of the elected officeholder and in Virginia, the requirement that every county and every city be served by a commonwealth's attorney. Certain cities in Kentucky and cities in Virginia are independent jurisdictions (hence the term \"independent city,\" a designation conceptually similar to that of cities having imperial immediacy under the Holy Roman Empire) and not part of any county."}, {"context": " The role of commonwealth's attorneys, district attorneys, and state's attorneys should not be confused with the role of a county attorney or city attorney whose authority is usually limited by individual state constitutions to non-felony infractions or misdemeanor cases. Commonwealth's attorneys are elected in their respective jurisdictions in both Virginia and Kentucky for terms of four years and six years, respectively. The official name of Virginia is \"Commonwealth of Virginia\". At the time of the formation of the United States, it was one of three original states that used \"Commonwealth\" in its name, the others being Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. At the time, Virginia adopted \"Commonwealth's attorney\" as the title for its official prosecutors, while Massachusetts and Pennsylvania adopted the title district attorney."}, {"context": " When Kentucky broke away from Virginia in 1792 to become the 15th state, Kentucky adopted the style, laws and titles of Virginia, which it has retained, making it the only State outside the original 13 States to have \"Commonwealth\" in its official name. Commonwealth's Attorneys in Kentucky have broad powers of subpoena, investigation, arrest, and prosecution. All 120 counties and 73 independent cities are served by a Commonwealth's Attotney office, in their respective Judicial District. In Kentucky, courts of general jurisdiction and state-level prosecutorial situations are called Circuit Court (\"Superior\" or \"State\" court elsewhere)."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth, Singapore", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth is a subzone of Queenstown, located in the central-western part of Singapore. It is named after the Commonwealth of Nations. Commonwealth consists of Housing and Development Board flats, and there is one primary school and a secondary school in the area, New Town Primary School and Queensway Secondary School. SBS Transit Bus Services 32, 51, 93, 100, 105, 111, 122, 123, 145, 147, 153, 186, 195, 196, 198 and SMRT Bus Services 61, 855, 961 & 970 passes through this area. The nearest Mass Rapid Transit station is Commonwealth MRT Station. Amenities in the area include Blessed Sacrament Church, Faith Methodist Church, Masjid Mujahidin Mosque, Queenstown Community Centre, Queenstown Lutheran Church, Ridout Tea Garden, Sri Muneeswaran Temple and Tanglin Halt Food Centre and Market."}, {"context": " Commonwealth was once part of Queenstown SMC from 1955 to 1988 and subsequently became part of the founding constituencies of Brickworks GRC in 1988 when it was first formed, prior to the 1988 General Election. In 1997, this town became part of the expanded Buona Vista constituency as it was part of Tanjong Pagar GRC when both GRCs merged but Clementi, West Coast, Pasir Panjang and Telok Blangah were carved out to form West Coast GRC. In 2001, Commonwealth itself and the entire Buona Vista ward were being carved out to form Holland-Bukit Panjang GRC and subsequently Holland-Bukit Timah GRC in 2006.  Since then, Buona Vista (including Commonwealth) has since returned to Tanjong Pagar GRC in 2011 and this constituency is currently helmed by the incumbent Minister of Trade & Industry Chan Chun Sing. Today, the entire of Commonwealth (including Commonwealth Close and Crescent) is now managed by Tanjong Pagar Town Council."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth, Virginia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth is an unincorporated community in Albemarle County, Virginia."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth, Wisconsin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth is a town in Florence County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 419 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated community of Commonwealth is located in the town. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 42.9\u00a0square miles (111.2\u00a0km\u00b2), of which, 42.3\u00a0square miles (109.6\u00a0km\u00b2) of it is land and 0.6\u00a0square miles (1.6\u00a0km\u00b2) of it (1.42%) is water. As of the census of 2000, there were 419 people, 170 households, and 124 families residing in the town. The population density was 9.9 people per square mile (3.8/km\u00b2). There were 326 housing units at an average density of 7.7 per square mile (3.0/km\u00b2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.57% White, and 1.43% from two or more races."}, {"context": " There were 170 households out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.1% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.5% were non-families. 21.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.89. In the town, the population was spread out with 23.9% under the age of 18, 6.4% from 18 to 24, 29.8% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 15.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.8 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $38,015, and the median income for a family was $39,659. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $23,571 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,137. About 5.4% of families and 6.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.0% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over."}]}, {"title": "Commonwealth-Parkville School", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonwealth\u2013Parkville School (CPS), founded in 1952, and incorporated in Puerto Rico, is a private, college preparatory day school. It is a non-sectarian, non-profit, co-educational institution governed by a Board of Directors. CPS provides an integrated PPK-12 curriculum in English with a strong program in Spanish. It is located on two campuses: Parkville Campus in Guaynabo, PR (grades PPK-6), and Commonwealth Campus in Hato Rey, San Juan, PR (grades 7-12). Commonwealth-Parkville School (formerly known as \"Caribbean Preparatory School\") is a private, college preparatory day school founded in 1952 and incorporated in Puerto Rico. It is a non-sectarian, non-profit, co-educational institution governed by a Board of Directors. CPS provides an integrated PPK-12 curriculum in English with a program in Spanish. CPS\u2019 history dates back to 1951 when several families relocated to Puerto Rico to work with the Economic Development Administration (Fomento). The main obstacle these parents faced was the lack of English language schools for their children. They began looking for physical facilities and studying the requirements to create an English school that would fulfill their need for education."}, {"context": " They rented a community center located in the Roosevelt neighborhood in Hato Rey, where Commonwealth Middle and High School are located today. The school began with 92 students, eight teachers, and eight classrooms. Every year a new grade was added until 1961, when Commonwealth School graduated its first twelfth grade class of 10 students. Parallel to Commonwealth High School\u2019s founding is the history of the San Juan School by the Sea. These two schools instituted a new educational system in the history of education in Puerto Rico. Seven parents started the San Juan by the Sea Elementary School. It consisted of a kindergarten through sixth grade and was located in a rented apartment in Condado. Later, the school moved to a property in Punta Las Mar\u00edas."}, {"context": " In 1964, Commonwealth was empty and grades kindergarten through twelfth needed more classrooms to accommodate all students. Parkville School in Guaynabo was then built to serve as the elementary campus. The three schools: Commonwealth, San Juan by the Sea, and Parkville, constituted the Caribbean Consolidated Schools system, which was incorporated in 1964. In 1979, the Board of Directors voted to sell San Juan by the Sea and improve facilities at Parkville and Commonwealth Campuses. The mission of the Commonwealth\u2013Parkville School is \"to provide for the changing educational needs of 21st Century students by promoting creativity, values, leadership, sportsmanship, and life skills, within an engaging and challenging academic, yet caring environment.\""}, {"context": " Students take required academic courses, that include among others art, dance, music, and computer. In addition, they prepare well for the Stanford Achievement Tests, the Scholastic Assessments Tests given in English, and the College Board exams given in Spanish. Advanced Placement (AP) courses are an important component of the educational offerings. CPS is a member of the Network of Complementary Schools, which offers the students the opportunity of traveling as exchange students to one of twenty-eight stateside private and public schools. CPS also coordinates an annual internship program for seniors to spend several days with a professional within the occupational area of their choice."}, {"context": " CPS Horizons Program offers to students with mild learning differences special assistance to develop strategies to become successful with grade level material for each subject taken in the Horizons setting. To that end, CPS provides the special adaptations and accommodations for each student. Horizons teachers are the key to encourage students to make possible their independent work. As member of the Puerto Rico High School Athletic Alliance (PRHSAA)and Liga Atl\u00e9tica Mini Escuelas Privadas, Inc.(LAMEPI), CPS has varsity and junior varsity teams in:  \u2022 Volleyball \u2022 Soccer \u2022 Swimming \u2022 Basketball \u2022 Indoor Soccer \u2022 Softball \u2022 Bowling \u2022 Cross Country \u2022 Table Tennis \u2022 Track & Field \u2022 Tennis \u2022 Golf"}]}, {"title": "Commonword", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commonword (1975\u2013present) is a writing development organisation based in Manchester, providing opportunities for new and aspiring writers to develop their talent and potential, promoting new writing on a national and international levels. The organisation was set up in 1975. It is currently the largest new writing, community writing and publishing organisation in the North West. It is a limited company and registered charity, and is Arts Council funded. Cultureword is one strand of Commonword. It was established in 1986 as a centre for black creative writing. Lemn Sissay was working at the organisation as Cultureword's literature worker and convenor of the 'Tight Fisted Poets' group, nurturing new writing talent among many of Manchester's BAME writers. This objective remains fundamental to the organisation's stance to this day."}, {"context": " Commonword run a number of writers' groups, workshops, events and conferences. Young Identity (also known as YI) was created in 2006 by Shirley May and Ali Gadema. It is a spoken word collective aimed at younger writers, aged 13\u201325. Young Identity has performed all over the United Kingdom, working with a diverse range of writers including Saul Williams, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Ted Hughes Prize Winner Kate Tempest and the late Amiri Baraka. In association with the Manchester Literature Festival, Commonword holds the Black and Asian Writers Conference biannually. The conference aims to highlight the lack of diversity within the publishing industry through encompasses a series of talks, workshops and interviews. In 2006, the conference talks were as wide-ranging as 'Writing in Translation: What makes for a good translation?' to 'Black and Dangerous: BAME representation of mental health in writing.' The conference concluded with an event headlined by Manchester Lemn Sissay.  Crocus is the publishing imprint of Commonword and Cultureworld. It publishes works of fiction and poetry written by authors from the northwest of England."}]}, {"title": "Commophila", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commophila is a genus of moths belonging to the family Tortricidae."}]}, {"title": "Commophila aeneana", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commophila aeneana, the orange conch, is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Great Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy and Romania. The wingspan is 15\u201319\u00a0mm. Adults are on wing from May to June in one generation per year. The forewings are golden-yellow with metallic blue markings. The larvae feed on \"Senecio jacobaea\", \"Senecio paludosus\" and \"Picris hieracioides\". They feed on the roots of their host plant. Larvae can be found from September throughout the winter. The species hibernates in the larval stage."}]}, {"title": "Commophila nevadensis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commophila nevadensis is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Spain. The wingspan is about 21\u00a0mm. Adults are on wing from July to August."}]}, {"title": "Commoris", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commoris is a genus of the spider family Salticidae (jumping spiders). Both described species are found on the West Indies."}]}, {"title": "Commote", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A commote (Welsh \"cwmwd\", sometimes spelt in older documents as \"cymwd\", plural \"cymydau\", less frequently \"cymydoedd\"), was a secular division of land in Medieval Wales. The word derives from the prefix \"cym-\" (\"together\", \"with\") and the noun \"bod\" (\"home, abode\"). The English word \"commote\" is derived from the Middle Welsh \"cymwt\". The basic unit of land was the tref \u2013 a small village or settlement. In theory, 100 \"trefi\" made up a cantref (literally, \"one hundred settlements\"; plural: \"cantrefi\"), and half or a third of a \"cantref\" was a \"cymwd\", although in practice the actual numbers varied greatly. Together with the \"cantrefi\", commotes were the geographical divisions through which defence and justice were organised. In charge of a commote would be a chieftain probably related to the ruling Prince of the Kingdom. His court would have been situated in a special \"tref\", referred to as a \"maerdref\". Here, the bonded villagers who farmed the chieftain's estate lived, together with the court officials and servants. Commotes were further divided into \"maenorau\" or \"maenolydd\"."}, {"context": " The \"Domesday Book\" has entries for those commotes that in 1086 were under Norman control, but still subject to Welsh law and custom. However, it refers to them using the Anglo-Norman word \"commot\" instead of hundred, the word used at the time for the equivalent land division in England. The commotes mentioned in the Domesday book, in general, represented recent Anglo-Norman advances into Welsh territory. Although the commotes were assessed for military service and taxation, their obligations were rated in carucate (derived from Latin for cattle or oxen), not in hides as on the English side of the border."}, {"context": " The customs of the commotes are described in the Domesday accounts of the border earldoms of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire and Cheshire. The principal commotes described in Domesday were Archenfield, Ewias, and the commotes of Gwent in the south; Cynllaith, Edeirnion, and I\u00e2l (Shropshire accounts); and Englefield, Rhos and Rhufoniog (Cheshire accounts). In legal usage, the English word 'commote' replaced \"cwmwd\" following the Edwardian conquest of Wales in the 13th century, when English was made the official language for all legal documents. The Welsh, most of whom knew not a word of English, naturally continued to use \"cwmwd\" and still do so today. In much of Wales, commotes had become more important than \"cantrefs\" by the mid-13th Century and administration of Welsh law became the responsibility of the commote court rather than the cantref court. Owain Glynd\u0175r called representatives from the commotes for his two parliaments during the rising of 1400\u20131409."}, {"context": " The boundaries of commotes, or in some cases cantrefi, were in many cases subsequently more accurately represented by church rural deaneries than by the hundreds issuing from the sixteenth century Acts of Union. A considerable number of the names of adjacent medieval Welsh commotes contain \"is\" (meaning \"lower\", or \"below\" as a preposition) and \"uwch\" (originally \"uch\" and meaning \"higher\", or \"above\" as a preposition), with the dividing line between them being a natural boundary, such as a river, mountain or forest. Melville Richards noted that, in almost every instance where this occurs, the point of central authority was in the \"\"is\" division\" when the commote was named, and he suggested that such commotes were originally named in the sense of 'nearer' and 'farther' based on the location of that central authority\u2014\"i.e.\", the terminology is for administrative purposes and not a geographical characterisation."}, {"context": " Richards attributed the use of \"is\" and \"uwch\" to some confusion in translating Latin \"sub\" (meaning \"lower\") and \"supra\" (meaning \"upper\") into Welsh in too literal a sense, when the proper sense was to consider \"sub\" to be an administrative synonym for Latin \"cis\" (meaning \"this side of\"), and to consider \"supra\" to be an administrative synonym for Latin \"trans\" (meaning \"the other side of\"). A number of smaller units, such as manors, parishes and townships, also use the administrative distinction of \"is\" and \"uwch\", sometimes in their Latin forms (\"e.g.\", the manor of Clydach in Uwch Nyfer, divided into Sub Clydach and Ultra (Supra) Clydach)."}, {"context": " This is unrelated to the common use of \"isaf\" and \"uchaf\" in farm names, where the terms are used in the geographical sense. The Red Book of Hergest (1375\u20131425) provides a detailed list of commotes in the late 14th and early 15th century. The list has some overlaps and is ambiguous in parts, especially in the Gwynedd section. It should also be borne in mind that the number and organisation of the commotes was different in the earlier Middle Ages; some of the units and divisions listed here are late creations. The original orthography of the manuscript is given here together with the standard modern Welsh equivalents."}]}, {"title": "Commotio", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotio can refer to:"}]}, {"title": "Commotio (Nielsen)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Carl Nielsen's Commotio or Commotio for Organ, Opus 58, was composed between June 1930 and February 1931. The composer's last major work, it was first performed privately on 24 April 1931 in the chapel at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen. \"Commotio\" was considered by Nielsen to be a particularly important work. In a letter to his son-in-law Emil Telm\u00e1nyi on 24 February 1931 he wrote: \"None of my other works has demanded such great concentration as this: an attempt to reconstitute what is truly the only valid organ style, the polyphonic music that is especially suited to this instrument, which for a long time has been regarded as a kind of orchestra, which it absolutely is not.\" Nielsen also commented on the length of the piece: at 22 to 24 minutes, it was longer than any of Bach's organ works."}, {"context": " There was great interest in the piece by Danish organists, resulting in several private performances. In addition to that at the Christiansborg Palace Chapel, there were two performances by Peter Thomsen, two by Finn Vider\u00f8 on 14 June on the Marcussen organ in St Nikolai's Church, Copenhagen, one a week later by Emilius Bangert in Roskilde Cathedral and yet one more by Peter Thomsen in July. The first public performance was in Aarhus Cathedral on 14 August 1931 where the organist was Emilius Bangert. Despite poor health due to heart problems, Nielsen was present. There do not appear to be any reviews of this performance."}, {"context": " After news of the new organ work reached Germany, Erwin Zillinger, an organist from Schleswig, asked Bangert and Nielsen whether Commotio could be played at the Nordic-German Organ Week to be held in L\u00fcbeck that October. Nielsen had hoped to be present but weakness resulting from poor health prevented him from travelling. Bangert. who had been selected as the organist, travelled alone to L\u00fcbeck where, a day or two later, he heard of Nielsen's death. The concert therefore suddenly became a valedictory performance."}, {"context": " The review by Svend-Ove M\u00f8ller in \"Dansk Kirkemusiker-Tidende\" conveyed the emotional experience: \u201cMixed with the melancholy feelings that fill us on the death of Nielsen, is gratitude that it was granted him to complete this work, which we may designate without exaggeration as the most significant production in recent organ literature. Nielsen understood as few others did how to deploy the resources of his time such that they do not appear modern in the negative sense. His mode of expression, peculiar and distinctive as it may be, feels"}, {"context": " quite natural; not for an instant does one get the impression that he sought out new paths simply to get away from the well known roads; the affectation which so often characterizes modern music is not to be found in Carl Nielsen; his thoroughly wholesome musical idiom and his ability to create living music has produced here an organ work of enduring value. Emilius Bangert gave Nielsen\u2019s work a masterly performance...\" In connection with the L\u00fcbeck performance, Nielsen was invited to provide programme notes. First explaining in a footnote that Commotio meant \"Movement, also spiritual\", he continued (translated from Nielsen's German): \"The Latin word Commotio really applies to all music, but the word is used more specifically here as an expression of self-objectification. In a major work for the mighty instrument that is called the organ, whose sound is determined by the natural element we call air, the composer must attempt to suppress all personal, lyrical feelings. The expression becomes great and rigorous and demands a kind of dryness instead of the emotional, and must rather be gazed at with the ear than embraced by the heart. The work is borne up by two fugues, to which an introduction, intervening movements and coda cling like climbing plants to the tree-trunks of the forest; however, the composer thinks that further analysis is superfluous.\"  Two orchestral versions of Commotio werd made in recent years, by Bo Holten, who conducted the Odense Symphony Orchestra himself in 2007, as well as Hans Abrahamsen,whose version was performed by conductor Fabio Luisi and the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra in 2016."}]}, {"title": "Commotio cordis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotio cordis (Latin, \"agitation of the heart\") is an often lethal disruption of heart rhythm that occurs as a result of a blow to the area directly over the heart (the precordial region), at a critical time during the cycle of a heart beat causing cardiac arrest. It is a form of ventricular fibrillation (V-Fib), not mechanical damage to the heart muscle or surrounding organs, and not the result of heart disease. The fatality rate is about 65% even with prompt CPR and defibrillation, and more than 80% without."}, {"context": " Commotio cordis occurs mostly in boys and young men (average age 15), usually during sports, most frequently baseball, often despite a chest protector. It is usually caused by a projectile, but can also be caused by the blow of an elbow or other body part. Being less developed, the thorax of an adolescent is likely more prone to this injury given the circumstances. The phenomenon was confirmed experimentally in the 1930s, with research in anaesthetized rabbits, cats and dogs. Commotio cordis is a very rare event, but nonetheless is often considered when an athlete presents with sudden cardiac death. Some of the sports which have a risk for this cause of trauma are baseball, American football, association football, ice hockey, polo, rugby football, cricket, softball, pelota, fencing, lacrosse, boxing, karate, kung fu, and other martial arts. Children are especially vulnerable, possibly due to the mechanical properties of their thoracic skeleton. From 1996 to spring 2007, the USA National Commotio Cordis Registry had 188 cases recorded, with about half occurring during organized sports. Almost all (96%) of the victims were male, the mean age of the victims during that period was 14.7 years, and fewer than one in five survived the incident."}, {"context": " Commotio cordis may also occur in other situations, such as in children who are punished with blows over the precordium, cases of torture, and frontal collisions of motor vehicles (the impact of the steering wheel against the thorax, although this has decreased substantially with the use of safety belts and air bags). In one fatality, the impact to the chest was the result of an exploding whipped cream canister. In contrast, the precordial thump (hard blows given over the precordium with a closed fist to revert cardiac arrest) is a sanctioned procedure for emergency resuscitation by trained health professionals witnessing a monitored arrest when no equipment is at hand, endorsed by the latest guidelines of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. It has been discussed controversially, as\u2014in particular in severe hypoxia\u2014it may cause the opposite effect (i.e., a worsening of rhythm\u2014commotio cordis). In a normal adult, the energy range involved in the precordial thump is five to 10 times below that associated with commotio cordis."}, {"context": " These factors influence the chance of commotio cordis: The small window of vulnerability explains why it is a rare event. Considering that the total cardiac cycle has a duration of 1 second (for a base cardiac frequency of 60 beats per minute), the probability of a mechanical trauma within the window of vulnerability is 1 to 3% only. That also explains why the heart becomes more vulnerable when it is physically strained by sports activities: The cellular mechanisms of commotio cordis are still poorly understood, but probably related to the activation of mechanosensitive proteins, ion channels. These trigger extra electrical excitation waves which, if occurring right at the trailing edge of a previous electrical cycle, can give rise to ventricular fibrillation. Since the trailing edge of the preceding electrical cycle travels over the ventricular surface, the critical window for mechanical induction of ventricular fibrillation varies locally - i.e. the commotio cordis risk window exists in time and in space. This helps to explain why precordial impacts tend to have benign consequences."}, {"context": " Impact energies of at least 50 joules are estimated to be required to cause cardiac arrest, when applied in the right time and spot of the precordium of an adult. Impacts up to 130 joules have already been measured with hockey pucks and lacrosse balls, 450 joules in karate punches, and 1028 joules in boxer Rocky Marciano's punch. The 50-joule threshold, however, can be considerably lowered when the victim's heart is under ischemic conditions, such as in coronary artery insufficiency. Also an upper limit of impact energy is applied to the heart; too much energy will create structural damage to the heart muscle, as well as causing electrical upset. This condition is referred to as contusio cordis (from Latin for bruising of the heart). On isolated guinea pig hearts, as little as 5 mJ were needed to induce release of creatine kinase, a marker for muscle cell damage. Obviously, this figure does not include the dissipation of energy through the chest wall, and is not scaled up for humans, but it is indicative that relatively small amounts of energy are required to reach the heart before physical damage is done."}, {"context": " The risk would probably be reduced by improved coaching techniques, such as teaching young batters to turn away from the ball to avoid errant pitches, according to doctors. Defensive players in lacrosse and hockey are now taught to avoid using their chest to block the ball or puck. Starting in 2017, high school lacrosse players are penalized, and play stopped immediately, if they enter their own goal crease with the apparent intent of blocking shots or acting as goalkeeper. Chest protectors and vests are designed to reduce trauma from blunt bodily injury, but this does not offer protection from commotio cordis and may offer a false sense of security. Almost 20% of the victims in competitive football, baseball, lacrosse and hockey were wearing protectors. This ineffectiveness has been confirmed by animal studies. Development of adequate chest protectors may prove difficult."}, {"context": " Most cases are fatal. Automated external defibrillators have helped increase the survival rate to 35%. Defibrillation must be started as soon as possible (within 3 minutes) for maximal benefit. Commotio cordis is the leading cause of fatalities in youth baseball in the US, with two to three deaths per year. It has been recommended that \"communities and school districts reexamine the need for accessible automatic defibrillators and cardiopulmonary resuscitation-trained coaches at organized sporting events for children.\""}, {"context": " Several people have been convicted of involuntary manslaughter in cases involving insufficient and slow medical help to athletes who experienced commotio cordis during sports events, as well as in cases of intentional delivery of contusive blows. In 1992, Italian hockey player Miran Schrott died after a blow to his chest from the stick of Canadian-Italian player Jimmy Boni. Boni was charged with culpable homicide, and eventually pleaded guilty to manslaughter, paying a $1,300 fine and $175,000 restitution to Schrott's family."}]}, {"title": "Commotion (animation)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotion is a visual effects application, originally released by Puffin Designs. Puffin Designs was founded by Scott Squires (Visual Effects Supervisor at Industrial Light and Magic) and Forest Key to market Commotion. Commotion set a high standard for a rotoscoping application, introducing rotosplines and offering features like motion tracking and motion blurring for masks. It was the first desktop application to allow real-time playback of full quality video clips from RAM. Puffin Designs was later acquired by Pinnacle in 2000. After another release, Pinnacle let the program languish. Pinnacle has since been acquired by Avid, who shows no signs of reviving the product.  The last release was version 4.1. Apple Computer briefly bundled a limited version of the program with Final Cut Pro."}]}, {"title": "Commotion (horse)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotion (1938 \u2013 1960) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare who raced during World War II and was best known for winning the classic Oaks Stakes in 1941. After racing over sprint distances, she was stepped up in distance the substitute \"New Oaks\" over one and a half miles at Newmarket Racecourse. On her next appearance she won the Falmouth Stakes and was then retired from racing. She later became a very successful broodmare. Commotion was a bay filly bred in England by John Arthur Dewar who had inherited his Thoroughbred racehorses from his uncle the Scottish whisky distiller Thomas Dewar, 1st Baron Dewar. She was from the first crop of foals sired by the French stallion Mieuxce, who won the Prix du Jockey Club and the Grand Prix de Paris before his racing career was ended by injury. Commotion's dam Riot was a half-sister to both Sansonnet (who produced Tudor Minstrel) and Fair Trial as well as being a high-class racehorse in her own right, winning the July Stakes in 1931. Commotion was sent into training with Fred Darling at Beckhampton, Wiltshire."}, {"context": " Commotion's racing career took place during World War II during which horse racing in Britain was subject to many restrictions. Several major racecourses, including Epsom and Doncaster, were closed for the duration of the conflict, either for safety reasons, or because they were being used by the military. Many important races were rescheduled to new dates and venues, often at short notice, and all five of the Classics were usually run at Newmarket. Wartime austerity also meant that prize money was reduced: Commotion's Oaks was worth \u00a31,939 compared to the \u00a38,043 earned by Galatea in 1939."}, {"context": " With Epsom Racecourse unavailable in 1941, a substitute \"New Oaks\" was run over one and a half miles on the July course at Newmarket Racecourse on 19 June. Commotion was well-backed for the race despite never previously having raced beyond six furlongs. Ridden by Harry Wragg, she started at odds of 8/1 with the 1000 Guineas winner Dancing Time starting odds-on favourite. Wragg, who was a specialist at waiting tactics, restrained the filly in the early stages before producing her with a strong late run. She \"threaded her way through the field\" to take the lead in the final furlong and won by two lengths from Turkana, with Dancing Time three-quarters of a length away in third. Following the Derby victory of Owen Tudor, owned by a member of the Buchanan family, Commotion's success completed what was dubbed a \"whisky double\"."}, {"context": " At Newmarket in July Commotion started 6/5 favourite for the Falmouth Stakes which was run as part of a substitute Royal Ascot meeting. She won narrowly from 1000 Guineas runner-up Beausite with Turkana third. At the end of 1941, Commotion was rated the best three-year-old filly in Britain, three pounds ahead of Dancing Time. In their book \"A Century of Champions\", based on a modified version of the Timeform system, John Randall and Tony Morris rated Commotion an \"average\" winner of the Oaks. Commotion produced eight winners between 1943 and 1958 including three top-class performers before her death in 1960:"}]}, {"title": "Commotion Ltd v Rutty", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotion Ltd v Rutty [2006] IRLR 171 (EAT) is an Employment Appeal Tribunal case in which an employer, who denied its staff flexible working time, was found in breach of the Employment Rights Act 1996 for failing to have any lawful reason. Mrs Rutty was a warehouse assistant in Tonbridge, Kent packing educational toys for Commotion Ltd\u2019s business. She and her husband had to take over care for their grand daughter, Jasmine. Mrs Rutty asked the warehouse supervisor, Mr Wood, for flexible working time, as a three-day week. She was denied on the basis that the employer wanted to keep her as a full-time member, by a Mr Brown. She appealed, and Mr Coote rejected her claim again, writing back saying that the company's policy was to \u2018help to create a team spirit by having a uniform working day\u2019. She resigned and claimed her application was unreasonably rejected, constructive unfair dismissal and indirect discrimination.  The Tribunal held that there were no grounds on which the employer had shown that flexible working could not be accommodated, and hence its decision was based on incorrect facts. Judge Burke QC upheld the tribunal, whose decision was not perverse or contrary to the law set out in the Employment Rights Act 1996 ss 80F-H."}]}, {"title": "Commotion Wireless", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotion Wireless is an open-source wireless mesh network for electronic communication. The project was developed by the Open Technology Institute, and development included a $2 million grant from the United States Department of State in 2011 for use as a mobile ad hoc network (MANET), concomitant with the Arab Spring. It was preliminarily deployed in Detroit in late 2012, and launched generally in March 2013. The project has been called an \"Internet in a Suitcase\". Commotion 1.0, the first non-beta release, was launched on December 30, 2013.  Commotion relies on several open source projects: OLSR, OpenWrt, OpenBTS, and Serval project. Ubiquiti: TP-Link: Mikrotik:"}]}, {"title": "Commotion on the Ocean", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotion on the Ocean is the 174th short film released by Columbia Pictures in 1956 starring American slapstick comedy team The Three Stooges (Moe Howard, Larry Fine and Shemp Howard, in his final starring role). The comedians released 190 short films for the studio between 1934 and 1959. The Stooges play janitors who work at a newspaper office, begging to be given a chance to become reporters. The managing editor (Charles C. Wilson) promises to think about it over dinner. The phone rings while he is out and Moe answers. The person on the other end is one of the boss's reporters, Smitty (Emil Sitka), who relays a scoop to Moe that some important documents have been stolen by foreign spies. Coincidentally, the spy with the microfilmed documents, Mr. Borscht (Gene Roth) lives next door to the Stooges. He and the boys wind up as stowaways on an ocean liner. Stranded on a freighter on the high seas, and sustained by eating salami, the boys eventually overtake Borscht, recover the microfilm, and are thrilled with their newspaper scoop."}, {"context": " \"Commotion on the Ocean\" is a remake of 1949's \"Dunked in the Deep\", using ample stock footage. In addition, the newspaper room scenes were borrowed from 1948's \"Crime on Their Hands\". \"Commotion on the Ocean\" was the last of four shorts filmed in the wake of Shemp Howard's death using earlier footage and a stand-in. The film's plot device of hiding microfilm in watermelons is an allusion to an actual event that occurred in 1948. \"Time Magazine\"'s managing editor Whittaker Chambers, a former Communist spy-turned government informer, accused Alger Hiss of being a member of the Communist Party and a spy for the Soviet Union. In presenting evidence against Hiss, Chambers produced the \"Pumpkin Papers\": four rolls of microfilm of State Department documents, which Chambers had concealed in a hollowed-out pumpkin on his Maryland farm."}, {"context": " As Shemp Howard had already died, for his last four films (\"Rumpus in the Harem\", \"Hot Stuff\", \"Scheming Schemers\" and \"Commotion on the Ocean\"), Columbia utilized supporting actor Joe Palma to be Shemp's double. Even though the last four shorts were remakes of earlier Shemp efforts, Palma's services were needed to link what few new scenes were filmed to the older stock footage.It is also the final film to feature Shemp as a stooge. He would be replaced with Joe Besser in the last 16 shorts. For \"Commotion on the Ocean\", Palma appears in one new shot during the newspaper office scene. After Larry says, \"Oh, I know Smitty: 'Under the spreading chestnut tree, the village smitty stands',\" Moe slaps him. Palma gets involved in the slapstick exchange and shields himself in defense, obstructing his face.  All other new footage consists of Moe and Larry working as a duo, often discussing Shemp's absence aloud: This new footage was shot on January 17, 1956, six weeks after Shemp's death and one day after the previous film, \"Scheming Schemers\"."}]}, {"title": "Commotria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria is a genus of snout moths. It was described by Carlos Berg in 1885."}]}, {"title": "Commotria albinervella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria albinervella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918 and is known from Zimbabwe and South Africa."}]}, {"title": "Commotria albistria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria albistria is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by Janse, in 1922. It is found in Zimbabwe."}]}, {"title": "Commotria castaneipars", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria castaneipars is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918 and is known from Malawi and South Africa."}]}, {"title": "Commotria enervella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria enervella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918 and is known from Taiwan."}]}, {"title": "Commotria invenustella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria invenustella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by Carlos Berg in 1885. It is found in Argentina and Uruguay."}]}, {"title": "Commotria leucosparsalis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria leucosparsalis is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by Janse in 1922. It is found in South Africa."}]}, {"title": "Commotria mesiella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria mesiella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from Malawi."}]}, {"title": "Commotria phlebicella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria phlebicella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918, and is known from Zimbabwe and South Africa."}]}, {"title": "Commotria phoenicias", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria phoenicias is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from Nigeria and Uganda."}]}, {"title": "Commotria phyrdes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria phyrdes is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by Harrison Gray Dyar Jr. in 1914, and is known from Panama."}]}, {"title": "Commotria prohaeella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria prohaeella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918, and is known from Malawi."}]}, {"title": "Commotria rhodoneura", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria rhodoneura is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from South Africa."}]}, {"title": "Commotria rosella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria rosella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from Malawi."}]}, {"title": "Commotria ruficolor", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria ruficolor is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by Janse, in 1922. It is found in Zimbabwe."}]}, {"title": "Commotria rufidelineata", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria rufidelineata is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from eastern Africa and Malawi."}]}, {"title": "Commotria tripartella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria tripartella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson, in 1918, and is known from China."}]}, {"title": "Commotria venosella", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commotria venosella is a species of snout moth in the genus \"Commotria\". It was described by George Hampson in 1918 and is known from Malawi."}]}, {"title": "Commstock", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commstock is an annual concert event in San Antonio, Texas hosted by Communications Arts High School, but typically takes place at William Howard Taft High School. The title \"Commstock\" is a play-on-words of the famous Woodstock concert of 1969. Commstock usually consists of mainly rock music, usually played by the students. However, any genre of music can be played at the festival. Commstock typically takes place in the evening on a Friday, usually during either November or December, and lasts 3\u20134 hours. Student bands who play at the festival typically stay after school to set up, practice, or prepare.  Notable bands to play the event include the successful Austin, Texas based group Ghost Lapse and the now defunct rock n' roll band Handsome Genius."}]}, {"title": "Commugny", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commugny is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. Commugny is first mentioned in 1018 as \"Communiacum\". Commugny has an area, , of . Of this area, or 60.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 19.8% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 18.6% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.2% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.8% is unproductive land. Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 14.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.4%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 48.8% is used for growing crops and 3.4% is pastures, while 8.1% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water."}, {"context": " The municipality was part of the old Nyon District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Commugny became part of the new district of Nyon. The municipality is located near the French border. The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is \"Gules, a Pallet Argent, overall a Bell Or.\" Commugny has a population () of . , 37.3% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999\u20132009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 6.7%. It has changed at a rate of 0.9% due to migration and at a rate of 6.3% due to births and deaths."}, {"context": " Most of the population () speaks French (1,715 or 65.9%), with English being second most common (443 or 17.0%) and German being third (215 or 8.3%). There are 28 people who speak Italian and 1 person who speaks Romansh. The age distribution, , in Commugny is; 323 children or 13.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 377 teenagers or 15.3% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 207 people or 8.4% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 269 people or 10.9% are between 30 and 39, 459 people or 18.6% are between 40 and 49, and 294 people or 11.9% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 333 people or 13.5% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 148 people or 6.0% are between 70 and 79, there are 50 people or 2.0% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 2 people or 0.1% who are 90 and older."}, {"context": " , there were 1,054 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,389 married individuals, 52 widows or widowers and 108 individuals who are divorced. , there were 869 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.8 persons per household. There were 155 households that consist of only one person and 87 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 890 households that answered this question, 17.4% were households made up of just one person and there was 1 adult who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 227 married couples without children, 417 married couples with children There were 62 single parents with a child or children. There were 7 households that were made up of unrelated people and 21 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing."}, {"context": " , a total of 814 apartments (88.2% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 98 apartments (10.6%) were seasonally occupied and 11 apartments (1.2%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 0.7 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.3%. The historical population is given in the following chart: In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 21.78% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the LPS Party (16.43%), the FDP (15.51%) and the Green Party (14.58%). In the federal election, a total of 622 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 48.3%."}, {"context": " , Commugny had an unemployment rate of 2.8%. , there were 28 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 10 businesses involved in this sector. 19 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 8 businesses in this sector. 164 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 62 businesses in this sector. There were 1,301 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 42.6% of the workforce. , there were 92 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,102 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 12.0 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. About 9.8% of the workforce coming into Commugny are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.3% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 9.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 75.7% used a private car."}, {"context": " From the , 853 or 32.8% were Roman Catholic, while 802 or 30.8% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 14 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.54% of the population), there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 146 individuals (or about 5.61% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 12 individuals (or about 0.46% of the population) who were Jewish, and 48 (or about 1.84% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 7 individuals who were Buddhist, 5 individuals who were Hindu and 5 individuals who belonged to another church. 468 (or about 17.98% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 293 individuals (or about 11.26% of the population) did not answer the question."}, {"context": " Commugny lies on the Way of St. James, one of the pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela. In Commugny about 676 or (26.0%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 829 or (31.8%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a \"Fachhochschule\"). Of the 829 who completed tertiary schooling, 33.2% were Swiss men, 23.2% were Swiss women, 24.0% were non-Swiss men and 19.7% were non-Swiss women. In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 282 students in the Commugny school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 1,249 children of which 563 children (45.1%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 154 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 127 students in those schools. There was also 1 student was home schooled or attended another non-traditional school.  , there were 15 students in Commugny who came from another municipality, while 467 residents attended schools outside the municipality. It was in Commugny that Jean Lanfray committed the murders that lead to Absinthe being banned in Switzerland. George de Mestral inventor of Velcro lived and died in Commugny, where a road is named after him."}]}, {"title": "Communailles-en-Montagne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communailles-en-Montagne is a former commune in the Jura department in Bourgogne-Franche-Comt\u00e9 in eastern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the commune of Mignovillard."}]}, {"title": "Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is a Zimbabwean community-based natural resource management programme. It is one of the first programs to consider wildlife as renewable natural resources, while addressing the allocation of its ownership to indigenous peoples in and around conservation protected areas. It began with U.S. funding to assist local people managing natural resources. Elephants were often killed by Zimbabweans because they would destroy the peoples livelihood by raiding their land and gardens. Also, rogue elephants killed hundreds of people each year. CAMPFIRE began by selling 100-150 licenses per year for $12,000 to $15,000 (US dollars) for sport hunters to kill elephants. The returns were to be given to local councils to deem how it was used. Poaching was to be suppressed by the people in these hunting areas."}, {"context": " The US federal government has invested resources in CAMPFIRE, principally through USAID. By 1997, $7 million had been donated to the programme. This support created controversy in US politics. CAMPFIRE leadership lobbied in favor of the legalization of the sustainable consumptive use of endangered species as a strategy to increase the value of their remaining populations. This position clashed with the majority preservationist, anti-hunting public sentiment in the US as well as national and international law, in particular CITES. By 2014 the US stopped the importation of elephants into the US, halting much of the hunting carried out in CAMPFIRE communities by paying US citizens and apparently putting the program at risk."}, {"context": " During 1989\u20132001, CAMPFIRE generated over US$20 million of transfers to the participating communities, 89% of which came from sport hunting. The scale of benefits varied greatly across districts, wards and households. Twelve of the 37 districts with authority to market wildlife produced 97% of all CAMPFIRE revenues, reflecting the variability in wildlife resources and local institutional arrangements. The programme has been widely emulated in southern and eastern Africa. It has been estimated by the World Wildlife Fund that households participating in CAMPFIRE increased their incomes by 15-25%. Between 1989 and 2006 the project generated US$30 million, of which approximately 52 percent was distributed to local communities to promote rural development projects. No location has benefited more substantially than the Masoka ward, which has used its revenue to improve the livelihoods of its rural residents by building a four-block primary school, a two-ward clinic, a grinding mill, and two hand-pumped boreholes, to name but a few. In addition, environmental benefits have been witnessed since CAMPFIRE's inception; elephant numbers have increased, buffalo numbers are either stable or witnessing a slight decrease, and habitat loss has diminished, and in certain regions, even reversed. CAMPFIRE leadership also chose to invest communal development funds from tourism revenue to build a beer hall for local residents.  CAMPFIRE was affected by political events in Zimbabwe and a significant decline in tourism in the 2000s. It seems to have reemerged subsequently and maintains an active website. Hunting for cash continued. The 2014 ban in importation of elephant parts into the US has led to a significant decline in revenues from hunting parties."}]}, {"title": "Communal Award", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Award was made by the British prime minister Ramsay MacDonald on 16 August 1932 granting separate electorates in India for the Forward Caste, Scheduled Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Depressed Classes (now known as the Scheduled Caste) etc. The principle of weightage was also applied. The reason behind introduction of this 'Award' was that Ramsay MacDonald considered himself as 'a friend of the Indians' and thus wanted to resolve the issues in India. The 'Communal Award' was announced after the failure of the Second of the Three Round Table Conferences (India)."}, {"context": " The 'award' attracted severe criticism from Mahatma Gandhi As a result of the Second Round Table Conference, in September 1931, the then Prime Minister of Britain Ramsay MacDonald gave his 'award', known as the Communal Award. It provided separate representation for the Forward Caste, Scheduled Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Scheduled Castes. The Scheduled Castes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special constituencies in which scheduled castes could vote."}, {"context": " The Award was not controversial but it made to be controversial by the upper caste lobby and opposed by Gandhi, who was in Yerwada jail, and fasted in protest against it. Gandhi feared that it would disintegrate Hindu society. However, the Communal Award was supported by many among the minority communities, most notably the leader of the Scheduled Castes, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. According to Ambedkar, Gandhi was ready to award separate electorates to Muslims and Sikhs. But Gandhi was reluctant to give separate electorates to scheduled castes. He was afraid of division inside Congress and Hindu society due to separate scheduled caste representations. But Ambedkar insisted for separate electorate for scheduled caste. After lengthy negotiations, Gandhi reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with scheduled castes having seats reserved within it. This is called the Poona Pact. Electorates for other religions like Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans remained separate.  Akali Dal, the representative body of the Sikhs, was also highly critical of the Award since only 19% was reserved to the Sikhs in Punjab, as opposed to the 51% reservation for the Muslims and 30% for the Hindus."}]}, {"title": "Communal Blood", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communal Blood\" is a self-released single by the American instrumental band This Will Destroy You, and is the first single to be taken from their second album Tunnel Blanket. It was released for sale online, on 7\" Vinyl on December 6, 2010, although copies were sold at live performances from May of the same year. The first, and currently only, pressing was limited to 500 copies on black, 50 on clear and 5 on pink."}]}, {"title": "Communal Chambers", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Chambers were two parallel legislative bodies in Cyprus; one for the Greek Cypriot community and one for the Turkish Cypriot community. The Greek Chamber was abolished in 1965. The Chambers were established under the 1960 constitution, with the first elections held on 7 August 1960. The Patriotic Front won a large majority in the Greek chamber and the Cyprus Turkish National Union won all the seats in the Turkish chamber. Following the withdrawal of the Turkish community from national politics in December 1963, in March 1965 the remaining Greek members of the House of Representatives passed a law abolishing the Greek Communal Chamber and transferring its responsibilities to the House of Representatives. A new Ministry of Education and Culture was established to take responsibility for educational and cultural issues.  In 1967 members of the Turkish chamber joined with the 15 Turkish former members of the House of Representatives to establish a new Turkish Cypriot Legislative Assembly. The chamber was never officially dissolved, although its powers have not been exercised in the Republic of Cyprus since the 1974 division of the island. Article 87 of the constitution outlined their responsibilities:"}]}, {"title": "Communal Council of Monaco", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Council is the body responsible for the civil administration of the four \"quartiers\" of the Principality of Monaco. Because Monaco is both a nation and a city, the council chooses the mayor of Monaco and his/her officers. It consists of fifteen members, elected by direct universal suffrage to four-year terms, and a mayor, selected by the members. It meets every three months. The main responsibilities of the City Council and the Mayor concern the social and cultural spheres. These responsibilities include support for daycares, home care for seniors, and the Academy of music, as well as organization of elections, granting of marriage licenses, and encouraging engagement in the life of the city."}]}, {"title": "Communal Democracy Party", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Democracy Party (, TDP) is a social-democratic political party in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The party came into being in May 2007 as a merger of the Peace and Democracy Movement with the Communal Liberation Party. At the 2009 legislative elections for the Assembly of the Republic in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, the TDP, in its first elections, won 2 out of 50 seats and 6.87% of the popular vote. In 2013, it took part in the interim Siber cabinet with three ministers. At the 2013 legislative elections, the party increased its share of the vote to 7.41% and its number of MPs to 3. The TDP currently holds the mayorship of the Nicosia Turkish Municipality with Mehmet Harmanc\u0131."}, {"context": " In November 2016, MP Mehmet \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131, the founder of the party and its leader until 2013, resigned from the party, as did former MP Mustafa Emiro\u011fullar\u0131 and 70 other members including the former Minister of Agriculture Sami Day\u0131o\u011flu. Many of these members had originated from the Communal Liberation Party and they criticised what they saw as the nepotism by Cemal \u00d6zyi\u011fit. They went on to form a new party under the same name as their political origin. On 13 March 2015, Mustafa Ak\u0131nc\u0131, a former member of the parliament from the party, completed his application to run for presidency, and was endorsed by the Communal Democracy Party."}, {"context": " During his campaign, he put his voice forward regarding the ghost town Varosha, which is a very lively topic regarding the Cyprus problem. It was possible to see that Ak\u0131nc\u0131 favoured a settling approach to solve this problem. Regarding Varosha, Ak\u0131nc\u0131 stated that, \"Instead of living side by side a corpse let Varosha become a lively city where people live, contractors from both communities do business together and young people can find jobs\". Ak\u0131nc\u0131 went on to the second round by receiving 26.94% of the votes in the first round, and was elected president in the second round with 60.5% of the votes.  The TDP became a consultative member of the Socialist International in November 2015. It was upgraded to full membership in 2017"}]}, {"title": "Communal Depot of the Foreign Regiments", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Depot of the Foreign Regiments (DCRE), or (), was the primary operations center of gravity of the French Foreign Legion from 1933 to 1955. The Communal Depot of the Foreign Regiments (D.C.R.E) () was created on October 13 1st 1933. The Communal Depot of the Foreign Regiments was administratively dependent on the 1st Foreign Infantry Regiment. From April 1, 1942, the D.C.R.E became a formed unit corps (the equivalent of a regiment) and commanded by a senior colonel; the highest ranked colonel amongst all French Foreign Legion regimental commanders. This senior colonel of the D.C.R.E acts as a general inspector vis-\u00e0-vis of the minister."}, {"context": " On September 1, 1950, the functions of the D.C.R.E are delegated to the Autonomous Group of the Foreign Legion (G.A.L.E) () which took over temporarily from the Inspection of the Foreign Legion (I.L.E) (); the (I.L.E) that would later constitute the Foreign Legion Command. The D.C.R.E in the meantime changed name to the Communal Depot of the Foreign Legion (D.C.L.E) (). From 1950 to 1955, the newly named changed D.C.L.E was charged with running staffing operations, administration and the affairs of combat companies in transit. The D.C.L.E is dissolved on July 1, 1955 and the mission is relieved by the 1st Foreign Regiment."}, {"context": " Two hemispheres, one red and one green, masking a grenade with 7 flames placed on top of the inscription: French Foreign Legion (), The two hemispheres represent simultaneously the implementation of the Legion at quartier Vi\u00e9not at Sidi-bel-Abb\u00e8s and the relic \"monument aux morts\" of the D.C.R.E, responsible of traditions in mounting the guard. The green and red colors with the grenade with 7 flames are the traditional marks of the French Foreign Legion. The Insignia was created in 1946 by Colonel Gaultier, highest Legion ranking regimental commander of the D.C.R.E."}]}, {"title": "Communal Farm, Isfahan", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal Farm, Isfahan ( \u2013 \"Mojm\u016b\u02bfeh Gorveh H\u0101y Mash\u0101\u02bf Kesh\u0101varz\u012b\") is a village and communal farm in Murcheh Khvort Rural District, in the Central District of Shahin Shahr and Meymeh County, Isfahan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 48, in 13 families."}]}, {"title": "Communal House of the Textile Institute", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal House of the Textile Institute (also known simply as \"Nikolaev's House\") is a constructivist architecture landmark located in the Donskoy District of Moscow, Russia. The building, designed by Ivan Nikolaev to accommodate 2000 students, was erected in 1929-1931 and functioned as a student dormitory until 1996. As of August 2008, parts of the building are leased as office space, while the main residential block is abandoned and gutted inside; the current owner, Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys, plans to rehabilitate the dilapidated structure into a modern campus."}, {"context": " The Communal House of the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys became the first solo project for 28-year-old Ivan Nikolaev of the OSA Group; the contract awarded to him was a part of a larger project that included three student campuses in (then) remote areas of Moscow. The contract specification defined a modest maximum construction cost and building volume (50 cubic metres) per student. Any communal facilities, from staircases to libraries, counted towards the quota and decreased the actual living space. While all architects addressed these constraints by reducing available living space, Nikolaev's proposal was the most radical of all."}, {"context": " Nikolaev's principal design rule was a strict physical separation of common study space, public services (with cafeteria, showers and storage rooms) and the living space. Thus the building was H-shaped: a public services block connected a 200-metre long, 8-storey dormitory with a 3-story study block. Since all the students' possessions - from textbooks to day clothing - had to be stored in the lockers of the public services block, Nikolaev reduced dormitory rooms to sleeping space only. Initially, a standard sleeping cabin for two had a very small area, 2\u00d72 metres, but 3.2 metres tall. It had no windows and was connected by the door to a long corridor running along the exterior wall. Nikolaev attempted to compensate for the shortage of space with elaborate ventilation system. This proposal seemed too radical even for the Soviet avant-garde, and the cabins were increased to 2,7\u00d72,3 metres with proper windows."}, {"context": " These windows ran the full length of a 200-metre building - narrow continuous bands of glass without apparent structural support; they were only 90 cmhigh (110 cmafter 1968 reconstruction). The residential block relied on a steel frame structure. Initially Nikolaev designed all load-bearing in steel, but due to metal rationing he eventually replaced internal floor supports with wooden girders. The building had elevators, but they were reserved for cargo deliveries only. Instead, the students had to use three spacious staircases - two in the living block and one in the public services building. The latter had an unusual triangular shape, with smooth ramps instead of stairs, as in contemporaneous work by Le Corbusier. These staircases are sometimes compared to the spiral ramp of the Guggenheim Museum in New York City."}, {"context": " According to Nikolaev, the lives of the students should have been regulated in a nearly military communal fashion. After a common wake-up call all the students proceeded to common physical exercise areas (either a gym in winter or an open area in summer); at this moment the residential block was to be locked until late evening. After exercise, the students took a shower and dressed up in the public service locker rooms; after a breakfast in the canteen they followed their college schedule - either in off-site auditoriums or in the study block facilities. Nikolaev suggested injecting ozone into ventilation ducts at night and even considered sedating students to ensure they all fall asleep in due time (, \"\"do not rule out the feasibility of sleepening additives\"\"). Except for centralized sedation, this paramilitary order was actually maintained in the first years of operation, but later the regulations were eased up."}, {"context": " In 1941 the Textile Institute faculty was evacuated in deep rear, and its classes dissolved; the vacant campus was used by the military. After World War II the campus was taken over by the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys; students that returned in 1945 found the building heavily infested by bedbugs. Although contemporary architects regard the initial construction quality of the building as quite good for its period, by the 1960s it was falling apart. In 1968 it was renovated by Yakov Belopolsky under Nikolaev's supervision. The project took care of real-world student needs but was constrained by the existing structure and costs. For example, common toilet rooms located in the extemities of a 200-meter long building were expanded with shower rooms. However, there were still only two such rooms on each floor, and the students living in the center of the building still had to run a hundred meters there and another hundred back. The living cubicles were marginally enlarged at the expense of corridors and acquired larger windows; the ventilation system was, on the contrary, downgraded to less demanding standards."}, {"context": " In the next three decades the building fell into disrepair again. It lost the canopy over main entrance in 1980s and the wraparound balconies in 2006 were torn down for safety reasons. The living block was shut down in 1996; all wooden ceilings and partitions inside it were eventually torn down, exposing the steel frame inside an empty concrete shell. The campus nominally still belongs to the Institute of Steel, but the space of the former study and public services blocks is leased piecemeal to unrelated organizations. Architectural professionals and the general public were and are well aware of the poor state of the landmark, partly because it is located near the Moscow Architectural Institute dormitory and so became a regular subject of academic studies."}, {"context": " A new rehabilitation plan, supervised by Vsevolod Kulish, Professor of Moscow Architectural Institute, was approved in 2007 with an estimated cost of 600 million roubles (25 million US dollars). According to this plan, the rooms will be enlarged to at least 11 (single student) or 17 (double) square meters, with individual showers and toilets. The study block will be renovated back to the original plans and functions. As of March 2008, the rehabilitation is being financed through a specially appropriated federal budget fund."}]}, {"title": "Communal Liberation Party", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communal Liberation Party (, TKP) was a left-wing political party in Northern Cyprus. The TKP was established in 1976 by Alpay Durduran. It won six of the 40 seats in the 1976 elections to the National Council, and 13 seats in the 1981 elections. International he 1985 elections, the party was reduced to ten seats, as the National Council became the Assembly of the Republic and was increased in size to 50 seats. In the 1990 elections the TKP allied with the Republican Turkish Party and the New Dawn Party to run as the Party for Democratic Struggle. After losing the elections to the ruling National Unity Party, TKP MPs boycotted the Assembly, claiming that Turkey had putting money into the election campaign to support the government.  In the 1993 elections, the party won five seats, and it gained a further two seats in the 1998 elections. For the 2003 elections the party ran as part of the Peace and Democracy Movement, which won six seats. The TKP then ran independently in the 2005 elections, but failed to win a seat. In May 2007 it merged with the Peace and Democracy Movement to form the Communal Democracy Party."}]}, {"title": "Communal Liberation Party-New Forces", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal Liberation Party-New Forces (, TKP-YG) is a centre-left political party in Northern Cyprus. It is led by Mehmet \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131. It was founded in 2016 after a group headed by \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131 broke off from the Communal Democracy Party (TDP). \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131 and former MP Mustafa Emiro\u011flular\u0131 resigned from the TDP on 25 November 2016. This was followed by the resignation of 70 other members of the TDP, mostly originating from the historical Communal Liberation Party (TKP), on 28 November 2016. The rationale given for these resignations was what they saw as \"undemocratic\" policies employed by the TDP leadership under Cemal \u00d6zyi\u011fit and \"the restriction of the freedom of speech within the party\" after an election for the head of the G\u00fczelyurt District. This had culminated in disciplinary action against Emiro\u011flular\u0131, with the aim of expelling him from the party. \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131 and his fellows claimed that this was because Emiro\u011flular\u0131 wanted to change the name of the TDP back to \"Communal Liberation Party\" and also claimed that no new memberships had been allowed in the party for 6 months. \u00d6zyi\u011fit had countered these by saying that \"he was not concerned by personal business of this sort\"."}, {"context": " \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131 founded the party using the name \"Communal Liberation Party\" (TKP) on 28 November 2016. In January 2017, Sonay Adem, Ali Gulle and \u0130brahim Korhan, a group of political figures from Gazima\u011fusa District, resigned from the Republican Turkish Party and joined the TKP. In the meanwhile, the High Administrative Court ruled that the establishment of a new party under the name \"Communal Liberation Party\" should be suspended. As a result of this and an agreement with the new members, the party changed its name to \"Communal Liberation Party-New Forces\" on 19 January.  On 13 March 2017, the Social Democratic Party merged into the TKP-YG. On 26 October 2017, it agreed with the United Cyprus Party to contest the election together under the TKP-YG list. This alliance was named the \"Change and Liberation Alliance\". The party's newspapers are \"Ortam\", which used to be the TDP's newspaper but had \u00c7ak\u0131c\u0131 as its majority shareholder, and \"Haberat\u00f6r\"."}]}, {"title": "Communal President", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Presidente comunal () or Communal President () is the highest executive post for some locations in Argentina, mainly rural areas, called communes. It is equivalent to the title of Mayor. Some provinces with communes are C\u00f3rdoba, Chubut, Santa Fe and Tucum\u00e1n. The term does not apply to other structures also known as communes, this generally referring to entities that are small in size. The top executive post in such areas is not designated President but as Mayor (maire in the French or Luxembourg communes)."}]}, {"title": "Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Namibia is one of few countries in the world to specifically address habitat conservation and protection of natural resources in their constitution. Article 95 states, \"The State shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people by adopting international policies aimed at the following: maintenance of ecosystems, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity of Namibia, and utilization of living natural resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians, both present and future.\"."}, {"context": " In 1993, the newly formed government of Namibia received funding from the United States Agency of International Development (USAID) through its Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE) Project. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism with the financial support of organizations such as USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, and Canadian Ambassador\u2019s Fund, together formed a Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) support structure. The main goal of this project is to promote sustainable natural resource management by giving local communities rights to wildlife management and tourism."}, {"context": " In 1996, the Government of Namibia introduced legislation giving communities the power to create their own conservancies. The legislation allowed local communities to create conservancies that managed and benefited from wildlife on communal land while allowing the local community to work with private companies to create and manage their own tourism market. As of 2006, there are 44 communal conservancies in operation, in which the members are responsible for protecting their own resources sustainably, particularly the wildlife populations for game hunting and ecotourism revenues."}, {"context": " USAID began its third phase of CBNRM program in 2005, which includes expanding community management to include forest, fisheries and grazing land. The third phase also puts an emphasis on community training for business and trade skills. The conservancies stress the importance of local community control, but do not place any pressure on becoming a member. Communities that wish to apply to become a conservancy must apply through the Minister of Environment and Tourism office. Requirements for the conservancy application include a list of local area people who are community members, a declaration of their goals and objectives, and a map of their geographic boundaries. Their plans must also be discussed with communities that surround their boundaries. Any funds that the community receives through their conservancy must be distributed to the local community."}, {"context": " The conservancies in Namibia consist of various types, including the following: Profits from the conservancies are pooled together and used for the benefit of the community. The money can be used for projects such as building schools, daycare facilities or clinics. For example, the Torra Conservancy contributed $2,000 for school renovations, including buying a new photocopier. The profits have also been used for purchasing equipment such as ambulances, while other funds are allocated to individuals as a payment for being a member of the conservancies."}, {"context": " Since the introduction of the conservation legislation in 1996, benefits to the local communities have greatly increased. In 2004, the annual earnings for all 31 conservancies combined equaled $2.35 million, compared to $100,000 in 1995. The first self-sufficient conservancy was the Torra Conservancy, and in 2003, the annual average monetary distribution to their members was about $75. The progress of the CBNRM programs has been such that approximately 1 out of 12 Namibians is a member of a communal wildlife conservancy."}, {"context": " Namibia has a high level of biodiversity. Approximately 75% of the mammal species richness of Southern Africa exists in Namibia, with 14 endemic species. In fact, the southwest arid zone in Namibia, and much of South Africa, is an endemism hot spot for mammals, birds, and amphibians. Some of this pattern of endemism comes from species being confined by physical barriers, such as the Rocky Escarpment, or being adapted to arid conditions. There are 3 major biotic zones in Namibia, each being host to many endemic species: the Namib Desert, the Southwest Arid, and the Southern Savanna Woodland. In particular, the Namib Desert is home to the endemic desert elephant and the black rhino."}, {"context": " The aridity of Namibia makes the wetland ecosystems extremely crucial for many species, and can actually drive the distribution patterns of mammals. There\u2019s a gradient of species richness in Namibia that extends from southwest to northeast, which is similar to the pattern of rainfall. Because of the aridity, many animal species rely on protected migration corridors during droughty conditions. Currently, about 50% of all species in Namibia are of some conservation concern. Historically, large game species were vulnerable to hunting and poaching, while other species, such as large mammal predators were vulnerable to habitat conversion to agriculture, leading to local extinction and numerous threatened species. Over the past 200 years, economically valuable game species, such as zebra or lion have experienced a 95% reduction of their former range in Namibia and species, such as elephants and rhinos experienced population reductions to sizes as low as 50 individuals. Although exact numbers are unknown, it is estimated that at least 10 mammal species once known to be in Namibia are no longer there, and are assumed to be locally extinct."}, {"context": " Many of the wildlife populations have also decreased due to human-wildlife conflict, and as a response, these conservancies have attempted to address these concerns. As increasing human populations and habitat conversions to agriculture and/or livestock grazing occur, cheetahs, lions, and other large predators prey on cattle and other livestock. The conservancies mitigate the conflict by compensating the farmers for their losses. Some conservancies pay in cash specifically set aside from the conservancy funds, or, as in the Torra Conservancy, livestock are replaced by ones bred in a breeding station funded by the conservancy profits. This can actually reduce the \"revenge killing\" of large mammal predators that has been a large cause of the population reductions."}, {"context": " Besides livestock losses, there is also a need to reduce human-elephant conflicts around water resources. There have been several reported elephant attacks, particularly in the northwestern region of Namibia. The Nyae Nyae Conservancy has used the income generated from their park to build and manage water points specifically for elephants away from the human lands. The members of the conservancy are often given cash incentives to keep these water points functioning. Currently, approximately 14% of Namibia is designated as protected areas, which in 2003, was equivalent to 112,000\u00a0km\u00b2. Adding the protected communal conservancy lands brings the total to 192, 000\u00a0km\u00b2 of land under some protection. Some exist under an unsystematic figuration design, but 17 of the 29 conservancies (at that time) actually lie adjacent to the government\u2019s protected area networks (PANs). This can increase the continuity between protected areas and result in migration routes for elephants and other large range animals."}, {"context": " As a result of these conservancies, there are many instances in which wildlife populations are on the rebound. Poaching has decreased dramatically, and is most likely due to the shift in the perceived value of wildlife. The conservancy members now see that the sustainability of the wildlife is important for providing economic development in game hunting and ecotourism, and often game guards are employed to protect the wildlife from poaching. Animals such as elephants, oryx, buffalo, Hartmann\u2019s zebra, springbok and lion, are once again providing biodiversity to the country of Namibia. The black rhino population has recovered to become one of the largest free-roaming herds, and the cheetah population has become the world\u2019s largest population at approximately 2,500 individuals. A 2003 game count in northwestern Namibia revealed population recoveries to 500 elephants (up from 50), and 14,000 zebras (up from 500), and 100,000 springbok, and 35,000 oryx."}, {"context": " While there have been many benefits of these conservancies, questions still remain about their success. As of 2004, no quantitative studies had been done to determine if the conservancies have actually helped in protecting biodiversity, (but see the surveys reported above) or in increasing wildlife populations of all threatened species. One concern is that the conservancies might encourage the populations of only high-value game species, and ignore the others. This might not be optimum for biodiversity, although of course far better than if communities were gaining their income primarily through livestock and cropping, as they did before the conservancies were initiated. A way to possibly alleviate this problem might be to focus the profits on non-consumptive uses, such as ecotourism/safari activities, in which the only thing to shoot with is a camera. However, ecotourism likewise could lead to favouring of those species that tourists like to see, and can have major impacts in terms of infrastructure development, pollution, and other pressures of increased numbers of visitations."}, {"context": " There is also some concern that the protected area networks (PANs) established by the Namibian government are heavily skewed towards the Namib Desert biome, and do not fully represent all of Namibia\u2019s terrestrial ecosystems. While the biome is important, there are other biomes, such as savannas, woodlands, and the \"Succulent Karoo\" biome that are often underrepresented. In an analysis of endemism patterns in Namibia, Simmons et al. (1998) also found the Succulent Karoo and the Kaoko Escarpment to be needing protection. As of 1998, the Namib Desert constituted 69% of the PANs, while the savanna and woodlands only constituted 7.5% and 8.4%, respectively. The Succulent Karoo biome only represented 1.6% of the protected areas."}, {"context": " A study of cattle ranching vs. \"wildlife ranching\" in the neighboring country of Zimbabwe found that wildlife ranching was more profitable, but depended on diverse populations and large land areas. Wildlife ranching is the promotion of wild populations that offer some economic value, for example, the production of bush meat, trophy hunting, or sightseeing safaris. The conservancies in Namibia allow the local people significant discretion in how they allocate the land to cattle ranching, farming, or protecting wildlife with a view toward economic and environmental sustainability. Because there is growing interest in biodiversity and ecotourism, the conservancies often encourage wildlife ranching or similar activities. Instead of largely unsustainable and economically tenuous agricultural activities, the conservancies harvest income for the local population from the tourists and trophy hunters."}, {"context": " The same study found that low capital investment needs compared to cattle ranching introduced significantly less risk to the conservancies. In addition to lower start-up and maintenance costs, the profitability per unit of biomass was also higher, especially on larger land areas where resident herds of wild animals remained for long periods of time. This profitability came from the improved value of meat but most significantly from the interest that tourism and hunting have in wildlife. Few people would spend large sums of money to travel in the bush to see domestic cattle."}, {"context": " A study done in neighboring South Africa found that younger community members thought most highly of their conservancies, primarily because of the increase in employment opportunities and the improved economic situation of the communities. Others, particularly cattle ranchers, viewed the conservancies with dissatisfaction as they tended to reduce range grazing opportunities in favor of reserved \u2013 or in some cases restored \u2013 land for wildlife. King (2007) also found that the economic expectations of the particular conservancy were not met. However, King (2007) interpreted this as a result of unrealistic expectations and a concern for international ideals that did not consider the community out of which the conservancy was formed."}, {"context": " The value of communal wildlife conservancies toward biodiversity maintenance cannot be ignored. Wildlife conservancies promote biodiversity in numerous ways. By protecting the primary animals of economic value, the animals and plants that support or depend on the primary animals are also protected, and the majority of the land remains in a natural state. A 2002 paper found that a game reserve in Tanzania (in a comparable situation to the conservancies in Namibia) was unsustainable for several reasons. The central government of Tanzania has set aside a large portion of land for the conservation and controlled hunting of game in the Kilombero river valley. The findings in the paper indicate that in areas of the reserve that were patrolled by national wildlife agents, game was relatively plentiful. However, the majority of the reserve was poorly patrolled, leaving game animals over-harvested and significantly stressed by poaching and agricultural activity. Poaching mostly occurred to supply meat to supplement local people\u2019s diets, but a significant number of rhinoceros and elephant were taken by trophy hunters. The problem is compounded if the rules were enforced since that would prevent the locals access to quality protein from their hunting activities. Because the patrol of large areas by government wildlife agents is not possible due mostly to monetary issues, the poaching continues and the population of wildlife declines."}, {"context": " The Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe is an example of a successful transfer of power from the well-intentioned, but poorly effective and overly standardized national government to the local people. CAMPFIRE allowed the establishment of community control over game and land resources, and also the collection and retention of fees for wildlife hunting and sightseeing. The funds collected stay primarily in the community and are used for local development projects, including schools, clinics and rural infrastructure. This improvement in quality of life has made wildlife protection more valuable as a resource to the communities. There is significant evidence that the rate of poaching has decreased so much that hunting quotas could be, and have been increased \u2013 thereby increasing local revenue. The local communities manage the wildlife and wildland of their conservancies as resources that, if sustained, have the potential to provide continuous sources of both meat and income."}, {"context": " A study found that CAMPFIRE was successful in its primary aims, notably rural development and sustainable wildlife management. To illustrate this success, it was noted that many locals viewed the benefits of the CAMPFIRE conservancy so highly that they would tolerate some level of crop destruction by wildlife, rather than kill a valuable resource. The CAMPFIRE program and the study findings should apply well to Namibia and its communal conservancies as they are almost the same in both idea and implementation. However, due to recent political events in Zimbabwe, the continued success of CAMPFIRE within Zimbabwe may be questionable."}, {"context": " The importance of some measure of control over their lives and surroundings to individuals and communities is readily apparent. The control given to the community members of the conservancies was found to motivate them to administer and sustain the land area more effectively than the national government had been able to. A study done to understand the lack of success in several other types of wildlife and habitat sustainability programs, showed that the two biggest failings were: a poor or generic understanding of the affected communities, and a lack of community involvement within each specific program. Trophy hunters and ecotourists can go elsewhere, but the local population is usually not able to move. Not understanding the need to include the local stakeholders and their access to benefits or concern over burdens prompted the locals to largely ignore various aspects of previous sustainability plans. Many of these failings can be attributed to pressure from foreign governments and non governmental organizations whose primary interests may have generally ignored local populations."}, {"context": " In addition to a better understanding of the stakeholders' needs, the decrease in cost of some GIS software and other easy-to-use systems of information organization dramatically increased the effectiveness of community control of conservancies. Both national and provincial governments can obtain a relatively affordable amount of equipment and trained staff to construct databases with information collected from the locals and from other sources. They can then combine this information into readably usable maps for locals to use in their administration of each conservancy. Maps produced by this method highlight information of local concern and allow leaders to build consensus and to resolve community resource use issues, as well as giving everyone involved a \"big-picture\" view of their conservancy. Bringing even modest amounts of technology to underdeveloped portions of the country allowed significant progress toward the management and sustainability of communities and their resources."}]}, {"title": "Communal apartment", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Kommunalki or communal apartments (singular: , \"kommunalka\", \"kommunal'naya kvartira\") appeared in Tsarist Russia. The term \"communal apartments\" is a product of the Soviet epoch. The concept of communal apartments' grew in Russia and the Soviet Union as a response to a housing crisis in urban areas \u2013 authorities presented them as the product of the \u201cnew collective vision of the future.\u201d Between two and seven families typically shared a communal apartment. Each family had its own room, which often served as a living room, dining room, and bedroom for the entire family. All the residents of the entire apartment shared the use of the hallways, kitchen (commonly known as the \"communal kitchen\"), bathroom and telephone (if any). The communal apartment became the predominant form of housing in the USSR for generations, and examples still exist in \"the most fashionable central districts of large Russian cities\"."}, {"context": " The first communal apartments appeared in the early 18th century, when rental lodging was partitioned by the landlords into \"corners\", often walk-through tiny dwellings. From the mid-19th century the number of such apartments had drastically increased. Usually they consisted of 3 to 6 rooms. In the 20th century, the Soviet Union undertook \u201cintensive industrialization and urbanization,\u201d shifting from eighty percent of the population living in rural villages and towns at the time of the Revolution, to nearly the same percentage living in cities by the 1990s. People were driven from the countryside by poverty and collectivization, and pulled to the city by the industrialization of the economy. This exodus put enormous pressure on existing urban housing accommodations. Communal apartments were one answer to the housing crisis, and many considered them a step up from the alternatives of housing communes, hostels and barracks."}, {"context": " Lenin conceived of the communal apartment, and drafted a plan to \u201cexpropriate and resettle private apartments\u201d shortly after the Russian revolution. His plan inspired many architects to begin communal housing projects, to create a \u201crevolutionary topography.\u201d The communal apartment was revolutionary by \u201cuniting different social groups in one physical space.\u201d Furthermore, housing belonged to the government and families were allotted an extremely small number of square meters each. After Stalin\u2019s death in 1953, Khrushchev\u2019s regime \u201cembarked upon a mass housing campaign,\u201d to eliminate the persistent housing shortages, and create private apartments for urban residents. This campaign was a response to popular demand for \u201cbetter living conditions, single-family housing, and greater privacy;\u201d Khrushchev believed that granting the people private apartments would give them greater enthusiasm for the communist system in place and that improving people\u2019s attitudes and living conditions would lead to a healthier and more productive workforce. However, the new apartments were built quickly, with an emphasis on quantity over quality, and in underdeveloped neighborhoods, with poor systems of public transportation, making daily life harder for workers. These apartment blocks quickly became called \u2018khrushchyovka,\u2019 a cross between Khrushchev\u2019s name and the Russian term for slums."}, {"context": " Space in communal apartments was divided into common spaces and private rooms \u201cmathematically or bureaucratically,\u201d with little to no attention paid to the physical space of the existing structures. Most apartments were partitioned in a dysfunctional manner, creating \u201cstrange spaces, long corridors, and so-called black entrances through labyrinthine inner courtyards.\u201d Entire families lived in a single overcrowded room, with little hope of changing their situation. Residents were meant to share the kitchen, bathroom and corridors amongst themselves, but even these spaces could be divided. For example, each family might have their own kitchen table, gas burner, doorbell, and even light switch, preferring to walk down the hall to use their light switch to turn on the bathroom lights rather than using a closer switch belonging to another resident. Furthermore, the hallways were often poorly lit, because each family had control of one of the lights hanging in the corridor, and would only turn it on for their own benefit. Though communal apartments were relatively small, residents had to wait at times to use the bathroom or kitchen sink. The kitchen was the primary place the residents interacted with one another, \u201csharing their joys and sorrows,\u201d and scheduling shared responsibilities. Wary of theft, residents rarely left groceries in the kitchen unless they put locks on the kitchen cabinets. However, they often stored their toiletries in the kitchen as opposed to the bathroom, because other residents could more easily use things left unattended in the bathroom. Laundry was left to dry in both the kitchen and the bathroom."}, {"context": " The communal apartment was the only living accommodation in the Soviet Union where the residents had \u201cno particular reason to be living together.\u201d Other forms of communal living were based around type of work or other commonalities, but the communal apartment residents were placed together at random, as a result of the distribution of scarce living space by a governing body. These residents had little commitment to communal living or to each other. In spite of the haphazard nature of their cohabitation, residents had to navigate communal living, which required shared responsibilities and reliance on one another. Duty schedules were posted in the kitchen or corridors, typically assigning one family to be \u201con duty\u201d at any given moment. The family on duty would be responsible for cleaning the common spaces by sweeping and mopping the kitchen every few days, cleaning the bathroom and taking out the trash. The length of time a family was scheduled to work usually depended on the size of the family, and the rotation followed the order of the rooms in the apartment."}, {"context": " Communal living posed unique challenges; one author tells of an incident when a drunk neighbor passed out on the floor in front of the entrance to their room and urinated, to the horror of her mother, who was entertaining foreign guests when the \u201clittle yellow stream slowly made its way through the door of the room.\u201d She relates this incident to the experience of communal living, \u201cboth intimate and public, with a mixture of ease and fear in the presence of foreigners and neighbors.\u201d Tenants in communal apartments are \u201clike family in some respects and like strangers in others.\u201d Neighbors are forced to interact with each other, and they know nearly everything about each other, their schedules and daily routines, profession, habits, relationships and opinions, prohibiting any sense of privacy in the communal apartment."}, {"context": " The communal kitchen was an epicenter of the communal life in the apartment, with its news and gossips, joys and dramas, friendly shared salt and nasty practical jokes. Spying was especially prevalent in the communal apartment, because of the extremely close quarters people lived in. It was not unusual for a neighbor to look or listen into another resident\u2019s room or the common room and to gossip about others. Furthermore, the communal apartment was \u201ca breeding ground of police informants,\u201d people were encouraged to denounce their neighbors, and often did so to ensure safety for themselves or to gain their neighbor\u2019s room for themselves after they had them evicted or imprisoned."}, {"context": " Some individuals chose to get married simply to upgrade to a bigger apartment. One way that families were able to improve their living conditions was to \u201cexchange\u201d their living quarters. If a family was separated by divorce they could trade spaces, for example one could swap out one large space for 2 smaller units to accommodate a family. In spite of all these challenges, many former residents of communal apartments look back fondly on the sense of family they had with their neighbors. When asked which she would prefer, one woman who lived her whole life in a communal apartment in St. Petersburg said"}]}, {"title": "Communal conflicts in Nigeria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal conflicts in Nigeria can be divided into two broad categories: The most impacted states are those of the Nigerian Middle Belt like Benue, Taraba and Plateau.<br>Violence has reached two peaks in 2004 and 2011 with around 2,000 fatalities those years. It resulted in more than 700 fatalities in 2015. Since the Fourth Nigerian Republic\u2019s founding in 1999, farmer-herder violence has killed thousands of people and displaced tens of thousands more. Insecurity and violence have led many populations to create self-defence forces and ethnic militias, which have engaged in further violence. The majority of farmer-herder clashes have occurred between Muslim Fulani herdsmen and Christian peasants, exacerbating ethnoreligious hostilities.  Additional instances of ethnic violence in Nigeria exist; these are often urban riots or such, for example the Yoruba-Hausa disturbances in Lagos, the Igbo massacre of 1966 or the clashes between the Itsekiri and the Ijaw in Delta state. Others are land disputes between neighbours, such as clashes between Ile-Ife and Modakeke in the late 1990s and in Ebonyi State in 2011."}]}, {"title": "Communal constituencies", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal constituencies were the most durable feature of the Fijian electoral system. In communal constituencies, electors enrolled as ethnic Fijians, Indo-Fijians, Rotuman Islanders, or General electors (Europeans, Chinese, Banaba Islanders, and others) vote for a candidate of their own respective ethnic groups, in constituencies that have been reserved by ethnicity. Other methods of choosing parliamentarians came and went, but this feature was a constant until their final abolition in the 2013 Constitution."}, {"context": " In 1904, the British colonial authorities reserved seven seats in the Legislative Council for European voters; in 1929, provision was made for wealthy Indians to elect one representative also. (Indigenous Fijians, however, were represented by nominees of the Great Council of Chiefs and did not vote directly for their representatives until 1966). Although the number allocated to the various ethnic communities varied over the years, the basic manner of election did not change. It avoided electoral competition between candidates of different races."}, {"context": " In the 1960s, the Indo-Fijian dominated National Federation Party (NFP) began to press for universal suffrage on a common voters' roll. Indigenous Fijian leaders opposed this demand, fearful that it would favour Indo-FIjians, who then comprised more than half of the country's population. As a compromise, a number of national constituencies were established, allocated ethnically but elected by universal suffrage, but 25 of the 36 seats in the Legislative Council remained communal. Negotiations leading to independence from the United Kingdom were complicated by continuing demands from the NFP for a non-racial franchise. The death of the NFP founder A.D. Patel in October 1969, however, led to his replacement by Sidiq Koya, who was more flexible and enjoyed a personal rapport with Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, the Chief Minister and leader of the Alliance Party, which represented mostly indigenous Fijians. Koya and Mara agreed to a compromise at a conference in London in April 1970, which reduced the ratio of communal constituencies over national constituencies and left open the possibility of a future move to a common voters' roll. They agreed to establish a 52-member House of Representatives with 27 communal and 25 national constituencies. Indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians were each allocated 12 communal constituencies; minority groups were allocated 3."}, {"context": " The Fiji coups of 1987 were orchestrated by hardline Fijian ethno-nationalists who forced the abolition of the national constituencies, on the grounds that they gave a non-indigenous voters a say in who represented the indigenous Fijian community. The revised constitution made all parliamentary seats communal, with a built-in indigenous majority. 37 seats were allocated to indigenous Fijians and 27 to Indians, despite the near parity of their population numbers at that time. 5 seats were assigned to minority groups."}, {"context": " The constitution was revised again in 1997\u20131998. A constitutional commission chaired by Sir Paul Reeves, a former Governor General of New Zealand, recommended retaining 25 communal constituencies, along with 45 newly created open constituencies, to be elected by universal suffrage and contested by candidates from all races. The ruling Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei of Prime Minister Sitiveni Rabuka and the National Federation Party (which had formerly advocated a common roll) saw the communal seats allocated to indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians respectively as their power base, and insisted on reversing the ratio. Consequently, 23 seats were allocated to indigenous voters, 19 to Indo-Fijians, 1 to Rotuman Islanders, and 3 to minority groups; the remaining 25 represented open constituencies."}, {"context": " Multiracial citizens were formerly required to enroll on the General Electors's roll, or according to the race of their father. In the 1990s, Chinese-Fijian businessman and politician James Ah Koy challenged this rule in court. The law, and later the Constitution, were consequently amended to allow persons with multiple ethnic origins to register on any communal roll for which any of their ancestors, in either the male or female line, would have qualified. Many Fijian citizens of mixed Fijian and European origin, commonly known as Vasus, have since transferred from the General Electors' communal roll to the Fijian one."}, {"context": " This generated some controversy in the leadup to the parliamentary election scheduled for 2006. United Peoples Party leader Mick Beddoes expressed concern that electoral officials were encouraging members of minority communities to register on the Fijian communal roll, and were failing to provide them with the necessary forms to enroll as General Electors. \"\"It is not unusual for members of the Vasu community to be registered on the Fijian roll,\"\" Beddoes said. \"\"However encouraging minority voters to register as Fijians and not having a General Registration form for them to fill in when visiting their homes and only using a Fijian and Indian registration form, is unusual to say the least.\"\" A senior election officer said that the complaint was being taken very seriously."}]}, {"title": "Communal dining", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal dining is the practice of dining with others. The practice is centered on food and sharing time with the people who come together in order to share the meal and conversation. Communal dining can take place in public establishments like restaurants or in private establishments (home). Communal dining was an important part of ancient Rome's religious traditions."}]}, {"title": "Communal forests of India", "paragraphs": [{"context": " An \"Important Common Forest\" in India is a forest governed by local communities in a way compatible with sustainable development. Such forests are typically called village forests or panchayat forests, reflecting the fact that the administration and resource use of the forest occurs at the village and panchayat (an elected rural body) levels. Hamlets, villages and communities of villages may actually administer such a forest. Such community forests are usually administered by a locally elected body, usually called the \"Forest Protection Committee\", \"Village Forest Committee\" or the \"Village Forest Institution\". Such committees are known as \"Van Panchayat\"s in the Kumaon Division of Uttarakhand, \"Forest Co-operative Societies\" in Himachal Pradesh and \"Van Samrakshan Samiti\"s in Andhra Pradesh. Legislation pertaining to communal forests vary from state to state, but typically the state government retains some administrative control over matters like staff appointment, and penalization of offenders. Such forests typically conform to the IUCN Category VI Protected Areas, but protection may be enforced by the local communities or the government depending on local legislation."}, {"context": " Maharashtra is the state with the most forest land while Haryana has the least. Many village communities in India have traditionally used forests on a sustainable basis. However, the British Rule in India introduced several legislations in the 19th century curtailing the rights of local people from using forest resources. These included the Forest Act, 1865 and Forest Policy, 1894. While some of the legislation was enacted in a bid to enact restrictions on forest usage for the purpose of sustenance, it was also motivated partly because such legislation provided a legal basis for the British Raj to acquire valuable forest resources like timber for crucial initiatives like the Indian Railways.The British completely changed the way Indian forests were before."}, {"context": " Such abrupt curtailment of rights caused protests in forest-dwelling communities in India, especially in the heavily forested Kumaon region, and in what is present day Himachal Pradesh. The issues of such communities were addressed in the Indian Forest Act, 1927, which initiated the development of \"village forests\" for sustainable use by villagers dwelling in or on the fringes of the forest. The \"Van Panchayat Act\" of 1931 further expanded the idea of local administration and management of forests, even though the first Van Panchayats were formed as early as 1921."}, {"context": " Following the independence of India in 1947, the Government of India instituted the National Forest Policy, 1952 which classified forested areas into: \"Protected forests areas\", \"National forests\", \"Village forests\" and \"Tree lands\" \"Common Trees Between living places of People\". Laws regarding village forests were based on the state legislature. Numerous state laws and acts regarding communal forests were enacted before 1990, including the \"UP Van Panchayat Rules\" in 1976, and the \"Orissa Village Forest Rules\" in 1985."}, {"context": " However, such communal forest development and management came to the forefront only after the National Forest Policy, 1988. The National Forest Policy strongly suggested the idea of empowering and involving local communities in the protection and development of forests. A direct outcome of the National Forest Policy, 1988 was the Joint Forest Management Program (JFM or JFMP) instituted in 1990 by the Government of India. It was started on a pilot project basis in West Bengal as early as 1971, and again in the late 1980s with considerable success."}, {"context": " The JFPM calls for the existence of an elected \"village level organisation\" (VLO) which would actively administer and maintain the communal forest. Such an organization is sometimes an existing elected body, like the \"gram sabha\", or \"gram panchayat\". However, a new body is usually elected for administrative purposes, usually referred to as the \"Forest Protection Committee\" (FPC), but known as the \"Van Panchayat\" in the Kumaon region. As of September, 2003 all 28 state governments had initiated the JFPM, and many had passed appropriate legislation as well. According to the 2002-03 Annual Report of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, there were 84,000 JFM committees which controlled 170,000 square kilometres of forest in India."}, {"context": " The introduction of the protected area category \"community reserves\" under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community held lands. While this does not pertain to communal forest sites, communally owned forests may be candidates for protection under such legislation. (See Conservation reserves and community reserves of India) Typically, communal forests are formed in two ways: Other forms of communally managed forests exist in India, but do not enjoy any form of legal protection if the Government of India is not a collaborator. The two major forms of such communal forests are:"}, {"context": " In North East India community forest management is most prevalent, where people are managing their forest resources since time immemorial. Mostly these communities manage these forests for variety of reasons, including resource enhancement and/or maintenance, countering ecological threat, expressing religious sentiments, cultural concerns and/or continuing traditional systems, political expression and managing biodiversity concerns. Funding for such communal forest management and staff training usually comes from the \"Government of India\", but often comes from external non-governmental agencies. Notably, the World Bank has put forward several large loans for the purposes of accomplishing such projects, including a statewide co-operative drive in Andhra Pradesh in 2002. This project was, however, criticized for lacking transparency and focus."}]}, {"title": "Communal garden", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A communal garden (often used in the plural as communal gardens) is a (normally formal) garden for shared use by a number of local residents, typically in an urban setting. The term is especially used in the United Kingdom. The centre of many city squares and crescents (especially in London, for example) are maintained as communal gardens. Despite the name, and the fact that they typically look like small public parks, such gardens are normally privately or jointly owned, with sharing of maintenance costs. Access may be restricted by locked gates, with keys available for residents, or only unlocked during daytime. They are often surrounded by tall railings designed to keep people out.  One of the scenes in the 1999 film \"Notting Hill\" involves the two main characters, Anna (Julia Roberts) and William (Hugh Grant), breaking into private and locked communal gardens by climbing over the wall at night after a dinner party. The communal gardens used were Rosmead Gardens in Rosmead Road, Notting Hill, London."}]}, {"title": "Communal land", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"(see also Common land)\" Communal land is a (mostly rural) territory in possession of a community, rather than an individual or company . This sort of arrangement existed in almost all Europe until the 18th century, by which the king or the church officially owned the land, but allowed the peasants to work in them in exchange for a levy. These institutions still survive today in Switzerland and Sardinia. This system has also existed in Africa, Asia and America, and in some parts has persisted until today. A group or culture historically owns a piece of land and distributes it among its members, through the relevant authority. The good management of this land is veiled by the group itself, which can revoke the right of use to a farmer if this one is using it badly or for the wrong means."}, {"context": " The concept of communal land does not meet well with modern-day law, which is based on private property, so these territories more often than not are without a legal owner, which in law means it is property of the state. This has opened the door to cases of land grabbing by national or multinational companies, which has been the source of many conflicts and strife. The term communal land in Zimbabwe refers to certain rural areas within Zimbabwe. Communal lands were formerly called Tribal Trust Lands (TTL's). Subsistence farming and small scale commercial farming are the principal economic activities in communal lands, there is usually limited additional employment apart from in a Growth point and with jobs like teaching. Some communal lands have high population densities, and as a consequence overgrazing by cattle and goats and soil erosion can occur. The farms of communal lands are traditionally unfenced. Communal lands have resident traditional African Chiefs. Many communal lands are at a lower elevation than the richer commercial farms, and consequently experience higher average temperatures, and lower rainfall levels. Since independence, in communal lands, schools have been established and expanded, roads tarred, and electrification has spread. In recent years though, this development has slowed.  In Mexico communal land is known as the ejido. (see also the Chiapas conflict)"}]}, {"title": "Communal meal", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A communal meal is a meal eaten by a group of people that serves a social and/or ceremonial purpose. Some examples of communal meals are the Passover Seder, the Thanksgiving meal, cocktail parties, and company picnics."}]}, {"title": "Communal oven", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The four banal (English: common oven) was a feudal institution in medieval France. The feudal lord (French: \"seigneur\") often had, among other banal rights, the duty to provide and the privilege to own all large ovens within his fief, each operated by an ovenmaster or \"fournier\". In exchange, personal ovens were generally outlawed and commoners were thus compelled to use the seigniorial oven to bake their bread. Such use was subject to payment, in kind or money, originally intended merely to cover the costs associated to the construction, maintenance and operation of the oven. Seigniorial ovens were masonry ovens built on the Roman plan and were large enough to hold an entire community's ration of bread."}, {"context": " For example, in the hamlet of Nan-sous-Thil (C\u00f4te-d'Or, France), the villagers were required to bake their bread at the \"four banal\", as at home they were permitted only a small oven placed under the hood of the chimneypiece, for baking \"\"g\u00e2teau et flan\"\". Those regulations sought to reduce the risk of fire where thatched cottages huddled together. The danger was real, as demonstrated in 1848 when a full quarter of the neighbouring hamlet of Thil-la-Ville was consumed by a fire that ignited from sparks when a housewife heated her oven."}, {"context": " The oven design, but not necessarily the feudal monopoly on oven operation, was carried to French colonies. In New France, it was the only banal right commonly established and the oven's fortified construction also served to protect the colonists during skirmishes. The \"four banal\" system seems to have died out in France during the 18th century, though it was a time when some dormant seigneurial rights were being insisted upon by an aristocracy hard-pressed for cash, as an official \"m\u00e9moire\" suggests:  Traditions surrounding the \"four banal\" may have lasted as late as World War II. In some rural areas of France, the old communal ovens are still extant (\"illustration\") and are sometimes used for community celebrations."}]}, {"title": "Communal reinforcement", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal reinforcement is a social phenomenon in which a concept or idea is repeatedly asserted in a community, regardless of whether sufficient empirical evidence has been presented to support it. Over time, the concept or idea is reinforced to become a strong belief in many people's minds, and may be regarded by the members of the community as fact. Often, the concept or idea may be further reinforced by publications in the mass media, books, or other means of communication. The phrase \"millions of people can't all be wrong\" is indicative of the common tendency to accept a communally reinforced idea without question, which often aids in the widespread acceptance of factoids. A very similar term to this term is community-reinforcement, which is a behavioral method to stop drug addiction."}, {"context": " The community-reinforcement approach (CRA) is an alcoholism treatment approach that aims to achieve abstinence by eliminating positive reinforcement for drinking and enhancing positive reinforcement for sobriety. CRA integrates several treatment components, including building the client's motivation to quit drinking, helping the client initiate sobriety, analyzing the client's drinking pattern, increasing positive reinforcement, learning new coping behaviors, and involving significant others in the recovery process. These components can be adjusted to the individual client's needs to achieve optimal treatment outcome. In addition, treatment outcome can be influenced by factors such as therapist style and initial treatment intensity. Several studies have provided evidence for CRA's effectiveness in achieving abstinence. Furthermore, CRA has been successfully integrated with a variety of other treatment approaches, such as family therapy and motivational interviewing, and has been tested in the treatment of other drug abuse."}, {"context": " In Chris E. Stout's book \"The Psychology of Terrorism: Theoretical Understandings and Perspective\", Stout explains how community reinforcement is present in the psychotic state of terrorists. \"The individual would feel less charged, validated, courageous, sanctified, and zealous, and would feel exposed as an individual.\" It is believed that the group mentality of a terrorist organization solidifies the mission of the group through communal reinforcement. Members are more likely to stay dedicated and follow through with the event of terror if they receive support from fellow terrorist members. An individual might abandon the mission in terror, but with the reinforcement of his peers, a member is more likely to stay involved."}]}, {"title": "Communal roosting", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal roosting is an animal behavior where a group of individuals, typically of the same species, congregate in an area for a few hours based on an external signal and will return to the same site with the reappearance of the signal. Environmental signals are often responsible for this grouping, including nightfall, high tide, or rainfall. The distinction between communal roosting and cooperative breeding is the absence of chicks in communal roosts. While communal roosting is generally observed in birds, the behavior has also been seen in bats, primates, and insects. The size of these roosts can measure in the thousands to millions of individuals, especially among avian species."}, {"context": " There are many benefits associated with communal roosting including: increased foraging ability, decreased thermoregulatory demands, decreased predation, and increased conspecific interactions. While there are many proposed evolutionary concepts for how communal roosting evolved, no specific hypothesis is currently supported by the scientific community as a whole. One of the adaptive explanations for communal roosting is the hypothesis that individuals are benefited by the exchange of information at communal roosts. This idea is known as the information center hypothesis (ICH) and proposed by Peter Ward and Amotz Zahavi in 1973 states that bird assemblages such as communal roosts act as information hubs for distributing knowledge about food source location. When food patch knowledge is unevenly distributed amongst certain flock members, the other \"clueless\" flock members can follow and join these knowledgeable members to find good feeding locations. To quote Ward and Zahavi on the evolutionary reasons as to how communal roosts came about, \"...communal roosts, breeding colonies and certain other bird assemblages have been evolved primarily for the efficient exploitation of unevenly-distributed food sources by serving as ' information-centres.' \""}, {"context": " The two strategies hypothesis was put forth by Patrick Weatherhead in 1983 as an alternative to the then popular information center hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that different individuals join and participate in communal roosts for different reasons that are based primarily on their social status. Unlike the ICH, not all individuals will join a roost in order to increase their foraging capabilities. This hypothesis explains that while roosts initially evolved due to information sharing among older and more experienced foragers, this evolution was aided by the benefits that more experienced foragers gained due to the fact that as better forages they acquired a status of high rank within the roost. As dominant individuals, they are able to obtain the safest roosts, typically those highest in the tree or closest to the center of the roost. In these roosts, the less dominant and unsuccessful foragers act as a physical predation buffer for the dominant individuals. This is similar to the selfish herd theory, which states that individuals within herds will utilize conspecifics as physical barriers from predation. The younger and less dominant individuals will still join the roost because they gain some safety from predation through the dilution effect, as well as the ability to learn from the more experienced foragers that are already in the roost."}, {"context": " Support for the two strategies hypothesis has been shown in studies of roosting rooks (\"Corvus frugilegus\"). A 1977 study of roosting rooks by Ian Swingland showed that an inherent hierarchy exists within rook communal roosts. In this hierarchy, the most dominant individuals have been shown to routinely occupy the roosts highest in the tree, and while they pay a cost (increased energy use to keep warm) they are safer from terrestrial predators. Despite this enforced hierarchy, lower ranking rooks remained with the roost, indicating that they still received some benefit from their participation in the roost. When weather conditions worsened, the more dominant rooks forced the younger and less dominant out of their roosts. Swingland proposed that the risk of predation at lower roosts was outweighed by the gains in reduced thermal demands. Similar support for the two strategies hypothesis has also been found in red-winged blackbird roosts. In this species the more dominant males will regularly inhabit roosts in thicker brush, where they are better hidden from predators than the less dominant individuals, that are forced to roost at the edge of the brush."}, {"context": " The TSH makes several assumptions that must be met in order for the theory to work. The first major assumption is that within communal roosts there are certain roosts that possess safer or more beneficial qualities than other roosts. The second assumption is that the more dominant individuals will be capable of securing these roosts, and finally dominance rank must be a reliable indicator of foraging ability. Proposed by Heinz Richner and Phillip Heeb in 1996, the recruitment center hypothesis (RCH) explains the evolution of communal roosting as a result of group foraging. The RCH also explains behaviors seen at communal roosts such as: the passing of information, aerial displays, and the presence or lack of calls by leaders. This hypothesis assumes:"}, {"context": " These factors decrease relative food competition since control over a food source by an individual is not correlated to the duration or richness of said source. The passing of information acts to create a foraging group. Group foraging decreases predation and increases relative feeding time at the cost of sharing a food source. The decrease in predation is due to the dilution factor and an early warning system created by having multiple animals alert. Increases in relative feeding are explained by decreasing time spent watching for predators and social learning. Recruiting new members to food patches benefits successful foragers by increasing relative numbers. With the addition of new members to a group the benefits of group foraging increase until the group size is larger than the food source is able to support. Less successful foragers benefit by gaining knowledge of where food sources are located. Aerial displays are used to recruit individuals to participate in group foraging. However, not all birds display since not all birds are members in a group or are part of a group that is seeking participants. In the presence of patchy resources, Richner and Heeb propose the simplest manner would be to form a communal roost and recruit participants there. In other words, recruitment to foraging groups explains the presence of these communal roosts."}, {"context": " Support for the RCH has been shown in ravens (\"Covus corax\"). Reviewing a previous study by John Marzluff, Bernd Heinrich, and Colleen Marzluff, Etienne Danchin and Heinz Richner demonstrate that the collected data proves the RCH instead of the Information Center Hypothesis supported by Marzluff, et al. Both knowledgeable and na\u00efve (\"clueless\") birds are shown to make up the roosts and leave them at the same time, with the na\u00efve birds being led to the food sources. Aerial demonstrations were shown to peak around the same time as the discovery of a new food source. These communities were made up of non-breeders which forage in patchily distributed food environments, following the assumptions made by Richner and Heeb."}, {"context": " At this point in time there has been no additional scientific evidence excluding RCH or any evidence of overwhelming support. What is overlooked by RCH is that information may also be passed within the communal roost which increases and solidifies the community. Birds in a communal roost can reduce the impact of wind and cold weather by sharing body heat through huddling, which reduces the overall energy demand of thermoregulation. A study by Guy Beauchamp explained that black-billed magpies (\"Pica hudsonia\") often formed the largest roosts during the winter. The magpies tend to react very slowly at low body temperatures, leaving them vulnerable to predators. Communal roosting in this case would improve their reactivity by sharing body heat, allowing them to detect and respond to predators much more quickly."}, {"context": " A large roost with many members can visually detect predators easier, allowing individuals to respond and alert others quicker to threats. Individual risk is also lowered due to the dilution effect, which states that an individual in a large group will have a low probability of being preyed upon. Similar to the selfish-herd theory, communal roosts have demonstrated a hierarchy of sorts where older members and better foragers nest in the interior of the group, decreasing their exposure to predators. Younger birds and less able foragers located on the outskirts still demonstrate some safety from predation due to the dilution effect."}, {"context": " According to the ICH, successful foragers share knowledge of favorable foraging sites with unsuccessful foragers at a communal roost, making it energetically advantageous for individuals to communally roost and forage more easily. Additionally with a greater number of individuals at a roost, the searching range of a roost will increase and improve the probability of finding favorable foraging sites. There are also potentially improved mating opportunities, as demonstrated by red-billed choughs (\"Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)\", which have a portion of a communal roost dedicated to individuals that lack mates and territories."}, {"context": " It is costly for territorial species to physically travel to and from roosts, and in leaving their territories they open themselves up to takeovers. Communal roosts may draw the attention of potential predators, as the roost becomes audibly and visibly more conspicuous due to the number of members. There is also a decrease in the local food supply as a greater number of members results in competition for food. A large number of roost members can also increases the exposure to droppings, causing plumage to deteriorate and leaving birds vulnerable to dying from exposure as droppings reduce the ability of feathers to shed water."}, {"context": " Communal roosting has been observed in numerous avian species. As previously mentioned, rooks (\"Corvus frugilegus\") are known to form large nocturnal roosts, these roosts can contain anywhere from a few hundred to over a thousand individuals. These roosts then disband at daybreak when the birds return to foraging activities. Studies have shown that communal roosting behavior is mediated by light intensity, which is correlated with sunset, where rooks will return to the roost when the ambient light has sufficiently dimmed."}, {"context": " Acorn woodpeckers (\"Melanerpes formicivorus\") are known to form communal roosts during the winter months. In these roosts two to three individuals will share a cavity during the winter. Within these tree cavities woodpeckers share their body heat with each other and therefore decrease the thermoregulatory demands on the individuals within the roost. Small scale communal roosting during the winter months has also been observed in Green Woodhoopoes (Phoeniculus purpureus). Winter communal roosts in these species typically contain around five individuals."}, {"context": " Tree swallows (\"Tachycineta bicolor\") located in southeastern Louisiana are known to form nocturnal communal roosts and have been shown to exhibit high roost fidelity, with individuals often returning to the same roost they had occupied on the previous night. Research has shown that swallows form communal roosts due to the combined factors of conspecific attraction, where individual swallows are likely to aggregate around other swallows of the same species, and roost fidelity. Tree swallows will form roosts numbering in hundreds or thousands of individuals."}, {"context": " Red-billed choughs (\"Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax\") roost in what has been classified as either a main roost or a sub roost. Main roosts are constantly in use, whereas the sub roosts are used irregularly by individuals lacking both a mate and territory. These sub roosts are believed to help improve the ability of non-breeding choughs to find a mate and increase their territory ranges. Interspecies roosts have been observed between different bird species. In San Blas, Mexico, the great egret (\"Ardea alba\"), the little blue heron (\"Egretta caerulea\"), the tricolored heron (\"Egretta tricolor\"), and the snowy egret (\"Egretta thula\") are known to form large communal roosts. It has been shown that the snowy egret determines the general location of the roost due to the fact that the other three species rely on it for its abilities to find food sources. In these roosts there is often a hierarchical system, where the more dominant species (in this case the snowy egret) will typically occupy the more desirable higher perches. Interspecies roosts have also been observed among other avian species."}, {"context": " Communal roosting has also been well documented among insects, particularly butterflies. The passion-vine butterfly (\"Heliconius erato)\" is known to form nocturnal roosts, typically comprising four individuals. It is believed that these roosts deter potential predators due to the fact that predators attack roosts less often than they do individuals. Communal roosting behavior has also been observed in the neotropical zebra longwing butterfly (\"Heliconius charitonius\") in the La Cinchona region of Costa Rica. A study of this roost showed that individuals vary in their roost fidelity, and that they tend to form smaller sub roosts. The same study observed that in this region communal roosting can be mediated by heavy rainfall."}, {"context": " Communal roosting has also been observed in south Peruvian tiger beetles of the subfamily \"Cicindelidae\". These species of tiger beetle have been observed to form communal roosts comprising anywhere from two to nine individuals at night and disbanding during the day. It is hypothesized that these beetles roost high in the treetops in order to avoid ground-based predators. While there are few observations of communal roosting mammals, the trait has been seen in several species of bats. The little brown bat (\"Myotis lucifugus\") is known to participate in communal roosts of up to thirty seven during cold nights in order to decrease thermoregulatory demands, with the roost disbanding at daybreak.  Several other species of bats, including the hoary bat (\"Lasiurus cinereus\") and the big brown bat (\"Eptesicus fuscus\") have also been observed to roost communally in maternal colonies in order to reduce the thermoregulatory demands on both the lactating mothers and juveniles."}]}, {"title": "Communal section", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communal section (, formerly section rurale) is the smallest administrative division in Haiti. The 145 communes are further divided into 571 communal sections. It is headed by an executive body, the CASEC (Board of Communal Section) and a deliberative body, ASEC (Assembly of the Communal Section). These two institutions are aided by CDSC (the Development Council of the Communal Section). Within each, there are cities or neighborhoods, communities, \"habitations\", and \" lakou \" with sometimes difficult to grasp distinctions."}]}, {"title": "Communal shopping", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal shopping is a method of shopping where the shopper enlists others to participate in the purchase decision. This added participation empowers the shopper by giving additional points of view. Having multiple opinions and ideas from other people provides the shopper with a more encompassing examination of the product/service. Another factor that comes from communal shopping is boosted confidence in the decision to buy or not to buy. With a group contributing to the purchase decision, the shopper is more likely to feel like they have properly inspected the product or service. This confidence allows the shopper to reach a decision faster than if they had to look at the product/service from all angles on their own, and evaluate each aspect deemed important."}, {"context": " Communal shopping theory relies on the fact that a more comprehensive study of a product or service will facilitate a faster purchase decision. This does not mean that the shopper will necessarily buy the product/service, but that the shopper will \"decide\" faster. With communal shopping more people are included in the evaluation and more aspects can be examined at a time. In this way the evaluation can be completed more quickly. This is how communal shopping facilitates a quicker purchase decision.  With the advent of the Internet and the vast popularity of online shopping, communal shopping was sure to hit the Net. With technologies such as \"remote webpage sharing\" and online chat, online users can now shop together even though they are located in different places."}]}, {"title": "Communal shower", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal showers are a group of single showers put together in one room or area. They are often used in changerooms, schools, prisons, and barracks for personal hygiene. Though not as prevalent in the West today, communal showers are often present in school locker rooms for use in personal hygiene after physical education. They also continue to exist in some gymnasia and many swimming pools. The practice of communal showers is not without controversy. Modern communal showers were installed in the barracks of the French army in the 1870s as an economic hygiene measure, under the guidance of Fran\u00e7ois Merry Delabost, a French doctor and inventor. As surgeon-general at Bonne Nouvelle prison in Rouen, Delabost had previously replaced individual baths with mandatory communal showers for use by prisoners, arguing that they were more economical and hygienic. The French system of communal showers was adopted by other armies, the first being that of Prussia in 1879, and by prisons in other jurisdictions. They were also adopted by boarding schools, before being installed in public bathhouses. The first shower in a public bathhouse was in 1887 in Vienna, Austria. In France, public bathhouses and showers were established by Charles Cazalet, firstly in Bordeaux in 1893 and then in Paris in 1899."}, {"context": " In the U.S. and some of the English-speaking majority of Canada, students at public schools have historically been required to shower communally with classmates of the same sex after physical education classes. In the U.S., public objections and the threat of lawsuits have led a number of school districts in recent years to change policy to make showers optional or to abolish the practice entirely. Private boarding schools and military academies in the U.S. often have communal showers, since the focus there is on 24-hours-a-day education and rooming, rather than just acting as day schools. Students in these establishments need places to clean themselves daily.  A court case in Colorado noted that students have a reduced expectation of personal privacy in regards to \"communal undress\" while showering after physical education classes. According to an interview with a middle school principal, most objections to showering at school that he had heard were actually from the students' parents rather than from the students."}]}, {"title": "Communal violence", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal violence is a form of violence that is perpetrated across ethnic or communal lines, the violent parties feel solidarity for their respective groups, and victims are chosen based upon group membership. The term includes conflicts, riots and other forms of violence between communities of different religious faith or ethnic origins. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime includes any conflict and form of violence between communities of different religious group, different sects or tribes of same religious group, clans, ethnic origins or national origin as communal violence. However, this excludes conflict between two individuals or two families."}, {"context": " Communal violence is found in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Australia. The term was constructed by the British colonial authorities as it wrestled to manage violence between religious, ethnic and disparate groups in its colonies, particularly Africa and South Asia, in early 20th century. Communal violence, in different parts of the world, is alternatively referred to as ethnic violence, non-State conflict, violent civil unrest, minorities unrest, mass racial violence, inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence."}, {"context": " Human history has experienced numerous episodes of communal violence. For example, in medieval Europe, Protestants clashed with Catholics, Christians clashed with Muslims while both perpetuated violence against Jews and Roma minorities. In 1561, Huguenots in Toulouse took out in a procession through the streets to express their solidarity for Protestant ideas. A few days later, the Catholics hunted down some of the leaders of the procession, beat them and burned them at the stake. In the French town of Pamiers, communal clashes were routine between Protestants and Catholics, such as during holy celebrations where the Catholics took out a procession with a statue of St. Anthony, sang and danced while they carried the statue around town. Local Protestants would year after year disrupt the festivities by throwing stones at the Catholics. In 1566, when the Catholic procession reached a Protestant neighborhood, the Protestants chanted \"kill, kill, kill !!\" and days of communal violence with numerous fatalities followed. In 1572, thousands of Protestants were killed by Catholics during communal violence in each of the following cities \u2013 Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Bourges, Lyon, Meaux, Orleans, Rouen, Toulouse, and Troyes. In Switzerland, communal violence between the Reformation movement and Catholics marked the 16th century."}, {"context": " The Horn of Africa as well as West African regions have similar history of communal violence. Nigeria has seen centuries of communal violence between different ethnic groups particularly between Christian south and Islamic north. In 1964, after receiving independence from the British colonial rule, there were widespread communal violence in the ethnically diverse state of Zanzibar. The violent groups were Arabs and Africans, that expanded along religious lines, and the communal violence ultimately led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Local radio announced the death of tens of thousands of \"stooges\", but later estimates for deaths from Zanzibar communal violence have varied from hundreds to 2,000-4,000 to as many as 20,000. In late 1960s and early 1970s, there were widespread communal violence against Kenyans and Asians in Uganda with waves of theft, physical and sexual violence, followed by expulsions by Idi Amin. Idi Amin mentioned his religion as justification for his actions and the violence. Coptic Christians have suffered communal violence in Egypt for decades, with frequency and magnitude increasing since 1920s."}, {"context": " East, South and Southeast Asia have recorded numerous instances of communal violence. For example, Singapore suffered a wave of communal violence in 20th century between Malays and Chinese. In Indian subcontinent, numerous 18th through 20th century records of the British colonial era mention communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, as well as Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, particularly during processions related to respective religious celebrations. The frequency of communal violence in South Asia increased after the first partition of Bengal in 1905, where segregation, unequal political and economic rights were imposed on Hindus and Muslims by Lord Curzon, based on religion. The colonial rule was viewed by each side as favoring the other side, resulting in a wave of communal riots and 1911 reversal of Bengal partition and its re-unification. In 1919, after British General Dyer ordered his soldiers to fire on unarmed protestors inside a compound in Amritsar, killing 380 civilians, communal violence followed in India against British settlements. There were hundreds of incidents of communal violence between 1905 and 1947, many related to religious, political sovereignty questions including partition of India along religious lines into East Pakistan, West Pakistan and India. The 1946 to 1947 period saw some of the worst communal violence of 20th century, where waves of riots and violence killed between 100,000 and a million people, from Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Jain religions, particularly in cities and towns near the modern borders of India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh. Examples of these communal violence include the so-called Direct Action Day, Noakhali riots and the Partition riots in Rawalpindi."}, {"context": " The 20th century witnessed inter-religious, intra-religious and ethnic communal violence in the Middle East, South Russia, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. The Indian law defines communal violence as, \"any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any religious or linguistic minority, in any State in the Union of India, or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes within the meaning of clauses (24) and (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution of India\"."}, {"context": " In Indonesia, communal violence is defined as that is driven by a sense of religious, ethnic or tribal solidarity. The equivalence of tribalism to ethnicity was referred locally as \"kesukuan\". Communal violence in Indonesia includes numerous localized conflicts between various social groups found on its islands. In Kenya, communal violence is defined as that violence that occurs between different community who identify themselves based on religion, tribes, language, sect, race and others. Typically this sense of community identity comes from birth and is inherited. Similar definition has been applied for 47 African countries, where during 1990\u20132010, about 7,200 instances of communal violence and inter-ethnic conflicts has been seen."}, {"context": " Colm Campbell has proposed, after studying the empirical data and sequence of events during communal violence in South Africa, Palestinian Territories and Northern Ireland, that communal violence typically follows when there is degradation of rule of law, the state fails to or is widely seen as unable to provide order, security and equal justice, which then leads to mass mobilization, followed by radicalization of anger among one or more communities, and ultimately violent mobilization. Targeted mass violence by a few from one community against innocent members of other community, suppression of complaints, refusal to prosecute, killing peaceful demonstrators, imprisonment of people of a single community while refusal to arrest members of other community in conflict, perceived or actual prisoner abuse by the state are often the greatest mobilizers of communal violence."}, {"context": " Research suggests that ethnic segregation may also cause communal violence. Empirically estimating the effect of segregation on the incidence of violence across 700 localities in Rift Valley Province of Kenya after the contested 2007\u20132008 general election, Kimuli Kahara finds that local ethnic segregation increases communal violence by decreasing interethnic trust rather than by making it easier to organize violence. Even if a small minority of individuals prefer to live in ethnically homogenous settings due to fear of other ethnic groups or otherwise, it can result in high degrees of ethnic segregation. Kahara argues that such ethnic segregation decreases the possibility of positive contact across ethnic lines. Integration and the resultant positive interethnic contact reduces prejudice by allowing individuals to correct false beliefs about members of other ethnic groups, improving intergroup relations consequently. Thus, segregation is correlated with low levels of interethnic trust. This widespread mistrust along ethnic lines explains the severity of communal violence by implying that when underlying mistrust is high, it is easier for extremists and elites to mobilize support for violence, and that where violence against members of other ethnic groups is supported by the public, perpetrators of such violence are less likely to face social sanctions.  In China, the communal violence in Xinjiang province is called ethnic violence. Communal violence and riots have also been called non-State conflict, violent civil or minorities unrest, mass racial violence, social or inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence."}]}, {"title": "Communal work", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communal work is a gathering for mutually accomplishing a task or for communal fundraising, for example through a knitting bee. Communal work was more common in the past, when it provided manual labour to others, especially for major projects they couldn't achieve on their own, for example in barn raising, log rolling, subbotniks, and other bees of various kinds. They are less common in today's more individualistic cultures, where there is less reliance on others than in preindustrial agricultural and hunterer-gatherer societies."}, {"context": " In more modern societies, the word \"bee\" has also been used for some time already for other social gatherings without communal work, for example for competitions such as a spelling bee. Especially in the past, major jobs, such as clearing a field of timber or raising a barn, needed many workers. It was often both a social and utilitarian event. Jobs like corn husking or sewing could be done as a group to allow socializing during an otherwise tedious chore. Such gatherings often included refreshments and entertainment. Different words have been used to describe such gatherings."}, {"context": " This use of the word \"bee\" is common in literature describing colonial North America. It was, and continues to be, commonly used in Australia also, most often as \"working bee\". Uses in literature include: Because the word describes people working together in a social group, a common false etymology is that the term derives from the insect of the same name and similar social behavior. According to etymological research recorded in dictionaries, the word probably comes from dialectal \"been\" or \"bean\" (meaning \"help given by neighbors\"), which came from Middle English \"bene\" (meaning \"prayer\", \"boon\" and \"extra service by a tenant to his lord\")"}, {"context": " Harambee () is an East African (Kenyan, Tanzanian and Ugandan) tradition of community self-help events, e.g. fundraising or development activities. \"Harambee\" literally means \"all pull together\" in Swahili, and is also the official motto of Kenya and appears on its coat of arms. Ethiopia Debo To build a house, or a farm. Each contributes according to one's ability. Especially indispensable for elderly and widows who do not have a strong man to support. Naff\u012br () is an Arabic word used in parts of Sudan (including Kordofan, Darfur, parts of the Nuba mountains and Kassala) to describe particular types of communal work undertakings. \"Naff\u012br\" has been described as including a group recruited through family networks, in-laws and village neighbors for some particular purpose, which then disbands when that purpose is fulfilled. An alternative, more recent, definition describes \"naff\u012br\" as \"to bring someone together from the neighborhood or community to carry out a certain project, such as building a house or providing help during the harvest season.\""}, {"context": " The word may be related to the standard Arabic word \"nafr\" (\u0646\u0641\u0631) which describes a band, party, group or troop, typically mobilized for war. In standard Arabic, a \"naff\u012br \u0101mm\" (\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0627\u0645) refers to a general call to arms. \"Naff\u012br\" has also been used in a military context in Sudan. For example, the term was used to refer to the \"an-Naff\u012br ash-Sha'ab\u012b\" or \"People's Militias\" that operated in the central Nuba Mountains region in the early 1990s. Gotong-royong is a conception of sociality familiar to large parts of Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei and Malaysia. The phrase has been translated into English in many ways, most of which hearken to the conception of reciprocity or mutual aid. For M. Nasroen, \"gotong royong\" forms one of the core tenets of Indonesian philosophy. Paul Michael Taylor and Lorraine V. Aragon state that \"\"gotong royong\" [is] cooperation among many people to attain a shared goal.\""}, {"context": " In a 1983 essay Clifford Geertz points to the importance of \"gotong royong\" in Indonesian life: An enormous inventory of highly specific and often quite intricate institutions for effecting the cooperation in work, politics, and personal relations alike, vaguely gathered under culturally charged and fairly well indefinable value-images--\"rukun\" (\"mutual adjustment\"), \"gotong royong\" (\"joint bearing of burdens\"), \"tolong-menolong\" (\"reciprocal assistance\")--governs social interaction with a force as sovereign as it is subdued."}, {"context": " Anthropologist Robert A. Hahn writes: Javanese culture is stratified by social class and by level of adherence to Islam. ...Traditional Javanese culture does not emphasize material wealth. ...There is respect for those who contribute to the general village welfare over personal gain. And the spirit of \"gotong royong,\" or volunteerism, is promoted as a cultural value. \"Gotong royong\" has long functioned as the scale of the village, as a moral conception of the political economy. However, as the political economy became more privatized, capitalistic, and individualistic, \"gotong royong\" has probably waned. Pottier records the impact of the Green Revolution in Java:"}, {"context": " \"Before the GR, 'Java' had relatively 'open' markets, in which many local people were rewarded in kind. With the GR, rural labour markets began to foster 'exclusionary practices'... This resulted in a general loss of rights, especially secure harvesting rights within a context of mutual cooperation, known as \"gotong royong.\"\" Citing Ann Laura Stoler's ethnography from the 1970s, Pottier writes that cash was replacing exchange, that old patron-client ties were breaking, and that social relations were becoming characterized more by employer-employee qualities."}, {"context": " For Prime Minister Muhammad Natsir, \"gotong royong\" was an ethical principle of sociality, in marked contrast to both the \"unchecked\" feudalism of the West, and the social anomie of capitalism. Ideas of reciprocity, ancient and deeply enmeshed aspects of \"kampung\" morality, were seized upon by postcolonial politicians. John Sidel writes: \"Ironically, national-level politicians drew on \" village conceptions of adat and gotong royong. They drew on notions \"of traditional community to justify new forms of authoritarian rule.\""}, {"context": " During the presidency of Sukarno, the idea of \"gotong royong\" was officially elevated to a central tenet of Indonesian life. For Sukarno, the new nation was to be synonymous with \"gotong royong\". He said that the \"Pancasila\" could be reduced to the idea of \"gotong royong\". On June 1, 1945, Sukarno said of the Pancasila: The first two principles, nationalism and internationalism, can be pressed to one, which I used to call 'socionationalism.' Similarly with democracy 'which is not the democracy of the West' together with social justice for all can be pressed down to one, and called socio democracy. Finally belief in God. 'And so what originally was five has become three: socio nationalism, socio democracy, and belief in God.' 'If I press down five to get three, and three to get one, then I have a genuine Indonesian term GOTONG ROYONG [mutual co-operation]. The state of Indonesia which we are to establish should be a state of mutual co-operation. How fine that is ! A Gotong Royong state!"}, {"context": " In 1960, Sukarno dissolved the elected parliament and implemented the \"Gotong Royong\" Parliament. Governor of Jakarta, Ali Sadikin, spoke of a desire to reinvigorate urban areas with village sociality, with \"gotong royong\". Suharto's New Order was characterized by much discourse about tradition. During the New Order, Siskamling harnessed the idea of gotong royong. By the 1990s, if not sooner, \"gotong royong\" had been \"fossilized\" by New Order sloganeering. During the presidency of Megawati, the Gotong Royong Cabinet was implemented. It lasted from 2001 to 2004."}, {"context": " Bayanihan (pronounced ) is a Filipino term taken from the word \"bayan\", referring to a nation, country, town or community. The whole term \"bayanihan\" refers to a spirit of communal unity or effort to achieve a particular objective. The origin of the term \"bayanihan\" can be traced from a common tradition in Philippine towns where community members volunteer to help a family move to a new place by volunteering to transport the house to a specific location. The process involves literally carrying the house to its new location. This is done by putting bamboo poles forming a strong frame to lift the stilts from the ground and carrying the whole house with the men positioned at the ends of each pole. The tradition also features a small fiesta hosted by the family to express gratitude to the volunteers."}, {"context": " In society, \"bayanihan\" has been adopted as a term to refer to a local civil effort to resolve national issues. One of the first groups to use the term is the Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company which travels to countries to perform traditional folk dances of the country with the objective of promoting Philippine culture. The concept is related to \"damay\u00e1n\" (\"to help one another\"). In computing, the term \"bayanihan\" has evolved into many meanings and incorporated as codenames to projects that depict the spirit of cooperative effort involving a community of members. An example of these projects is the Bayanihan Linux project which is a Philippines-based desktop-focused Linux distribution."}, {"context": " In ethnic newspapers, \"Bayanihan News\" is the name of community newspaper for the Philippine community in Australia. It is in English and in Filipino with regular news and articles on Philippine current events and history. It was established in October 1998 in Sydney, Australia. Imece is a name given for a traditional Turkish village-scale collaboration. For example, if a couple is getting married, villagers participate in the overall organization of the ceremony including but not limited to preparation of the celebration venue, food, building and settlement of the new house for the newly weds. Tasks are often distributed according to expertise and has no central authority to govern activities."}, {"context": " Talkoot (from Finnish: \"talkoo\", almost always used in plural, \"talkoot\") is a Finnish expression for a gathering of friends and neighbors organized to accomplish a task. The word is borrowed into Finland Swedish as \"talko\" but is unknown to most Swedes. However, cognate terms and in approximately the same context are used in Estonia (talgu(d)), Latvia (noun \"talka\", verb \"talkot\"), and Lithuania (noun \"talka\", verb \"talkauti\"). It is the cultural equivalent of communal work in a village community, although adapted to the conditions of Finland, where most families traditionally lived in isolated farms often miles away from the nearest village."}, {"context": " A \"talkoot\" is by definition voluntary, and the work is unpaid. The voluntary nature might be imaginary due to social pressure, especially in small communities, and one's honour and reputation may be severely damaged by non-attendance or laziness. The task of the \"talkoot\" may be something that is a common concern for the good of the group, or it may be to help someone with a task that exceeds his or her own capacity. For instance, elderly neighbours or relatives can need help if their house or garden is damaged by a storm, or siblings can agree to arrange a party for a parent's special birthday as a \"talkoot\"."}, {"context": " Typically, club houses, landings, churches, and parish halls can be repaired through a \"talkoot\", or environmental tasks for the neighborhood are undertaken. The parents of pre-school children may gather to improve the playground, or the tenants of a tenement house may arrange a \"talkoot\" to put their garden in order for the summer or winter. A person unable to contribute with actual work may contribute food for the \"talkoot\" party, or act as a baby-sitter. When a \"talkoot\" is for the benefit of an individual, he or she is the host of the talkoot party and is obliged to offer as much food and drink as possible."}, {"context": " Kal\u00e1ka (\u02c8k\u0252la\u02d0k\u0252) is the Hungarian word for working together for a common goal. This can be building a house or doing agricultural activities together, or any other communal work on a volunteer basis. Meitheal () is the Irish word for a work team, gang, or party and denotes the co-operative labour system in Ireland where groups of neighbours help each other in turn with farming work such as harvesting crops. The term is used in various writings of Irish language authors. It can convey the idea of community spirit in which neighbours respond to each other's needs. In modern use for example, a meitheal could be a party of neighbours and friends invited to help decorate a house in exchange for food and drink, or in scouting, where volunteer campsite wardens maintain campsites around Ireland."}, {"context": " Dugnad is a Norwegian term for voluntary work done together with other people. It's a very core phenomenon for Norwegians and the word was voted as the Norwegian word of the year 2004 in the TV programme \u00abTypisk Norsk\u00bb (\"Typical Norwegian\"). Participation in a \"dugnad\" is often followed by a common meal, served by the host. In urban areas, the \"dugnad\" is most commonly identified with outdoor spring cleaning and gardening in housing co-operatives. \"Dugnader\", Dugnads, are also a big phenomenon in kindergartens and elementary schools to make the area nice, clean and safe and to do decorating etc. such as painting and other types of maintenance. \"Dugnader\" occur more widely in remote and rural areas. Neighbours sometime participate during house or garage building, and organizations (such as kindergartens or non-profit organisations) may arrange annual \"dugnader\"."}, {"context": " The Norwegian word \"Dugnads\u00e5nd\" is translatable to the spirit of will to work together for a better community. Many Norwegians will describe this as a typical Norwegian thing to have. Moba (Serbian: \u043c\u043e\u0431\u0430) is an old Serbian tradition of communal self-help in villages. It was a request for help in labor-intensive activities, like harvesting wheat, building a church or repairing village roads. Work was entirely voluntary and no compensation, except possibly meals for workers, was expected. Gadugi (Cherokee:\u13a6\u13da\u13a9) is a term used in the Cherokee language which means \"working together\" or \"cooperative labor\" within a community. Historically, the word referred to a labor gang of men and/or women working together for projects such as harvesting crops or tending to gardens of elderly or infirm tribal members. The word \"Gadugi\" was derived from the Cherokee word for \"bread\", which is \"Gadu\"."}, {"context": " In recent years the Cherokee Nation tribal government has promoted the concept of \"Gadugi.\" The GaDuGi Health Center is a tribally run clinic in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, the capital of the Cherokee Nation. The concept is becoming more widely known. In Lawrence, Kansas, in 2004 the rape crisis center affiliated with the University of Kansas, adopted the name, the Gadugi Safe Center, for its programs to aid all people affected by sexual violence. Gadugi is the name of a font included with Microsoft Windows 8 that includes support for the Cherokee language along with other languages of the Americas such as Inuktitut."}, {"context": " Mink'a or minka (Quechua or Kichwa, Hispanicized \"minca, minga\") is a type of traditional communal work in the Andes in favor of the whole community \"(ayllu)\". Participants are traditionally paid in kind. Mink'a is still practiced in indigenous communities in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile, especially among the Quechua and the Aymara. In rural southern Chile, labor reciprocity and communal work remained common through the twentieth century and into the twenty-first, particularly in rural communities on the Archipelago of Chilo\u00e9. Referred to as \"mingas,\" the practice can be traced to pre-contact Mapuche and Huilliche traditions of communal labor. In Chilo\u00e9, mingas took the form either of \"d\u00edas cambiados\" (tit for tat exchanges of labor between neighbors) or large-scale work parties hosted by a particular family, accompanied by food and drink, and often lasting several days. Most agricultural work and community construction projects were done by way of mingas. The \"tiradura de casa\" (\"house pull\") involved moving a house from one location to another.  Panama In rural Panama, especially in the Azuero peninsula region and its diaspora, it is common to hold a 'junta' party as a communal labor event. Most commonly these events are used to harvest rice, clear brush with machetes, or to build houses. Workers generally work without compensation but are provided with meals and often alcoholic beverages such as fermented chicha fuerte and seco."}]}, {"title": "Communalism", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communalism usually refers to a system that integrates communal ownership and federations of highly localized independent communities. A prominent libertarian socialist, Murray Bookchin, defines the Communalism political philosophy that he developed as \"a theory of government or a system of government in which independent communes participate in a federation\", as well as \"the principles and practice of communal ownership\". The term 'government' in this case does not imply an acceptance of a State or top-down hierarchy."}, {"context": " This usage of communalism appears to have emerged during the late 20th century to distinguish commune-based systems from other political movements and/or governments espousing (if not actually practicing) similar ideas. In particular, earlier communities and movements advocating such practices were often described as \"anarchist\", \"socialist\" and/or \"communist\". Many historical communities practicing utopian socialism or anarcho-communism did implement internal rules of communalist property ownership in the context of federated communalism. It is at least theoretically possible for a federation of communes to include communes which do not practice communalist rules of property, which is to say, that the overall national government may be a federation of communes, but that private property rather than communalist property is the order within each such commune. Karl Marx, often viewed as the founder of modern communism, criticized older forms, including primitive communism and/or utopian socialism, as poorly conceived and/or prone to disintegration in practice."}, {"context": " Communalism in the form described above is distinct from the predominant usage in South Asian forms of English: allegiance to a particular ethnic and/or religious group rather than to a broader society. As such, this usage is synonymous with sectarianism and associated with communal violence. In this primarily religious-based community, the communist-like principle of \"Koinonia\" used by the early Christian Church as described in the \"Acts of the Apostles\" (4:32\u201335), which expressed the broad, general principle of \"all things in common\" (or, in some translations, \"everything in common\")."}, {"context": " Communalistic tendencies were often present in radical Reformation-era Christian movements in Europe. (This was later argued most famously by the Marxian theorist Karl Kautsky: see, for example, \"Communism in Central Europe in the Time of the Reformation\" .) Some features of Waldensian movement and associated communes in northern Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries followed certain aspects of communal ownership. Famously, Czech Taborites (radical section of the Hussite movement) in the 15th century attempted to build a society of shared property in the city of T\u00e1bor in south Bohemia."}, {"context": " Certain aspects and streams within the German Peasants' War in German areas of the 16th century, particularly Thomas M\u00fcntzer and the so-called Zwickau prophets had a strong social egalitarian spirit. European Radical Reformation of Anabaptist and different groups of Schwarzenau Brethren started processes which later led to communal movements of Shakers , Hutterites and the Bruderhof. The Anabaptist M\u00fcnster Rebellion of 1534\u20131535 attempted to establish a society based on community of goods. All of these post-Reformation attempts were led by biblical literalism in which they referred to previously mentioned passages from the Book of Acts. Radicalism of their social experiments was further heightened by chiliasm and ardent expectation of theocracy."}, {"context": " The Plymouth Colony was established by Separatist Pilgrims who had travelled from Europe in order to flee religious persecution and establish a religious community separate from the Church of England. The social and legal systems of the colony were tied to their religious beliefs as well as English Common Law. The presence of secular planters (\"The Strangers\") hired by the London merchant investors who funded their venture led to tension and factionalization in the fledgling settlement, especially because of the policies of land use and profit-sharing, but also in the way each group viewed workdays and holidays. This form of common ownership was the basis for the contract agreed upon by the venture and its investors. It was more akin to what we now think of as a privately held corporation, as the common ownership of property and profits was insured by the issuing of stock to the settlers and investors. It was also temporary, with a division of the common property and profits scheduled to take place after seven years."}, {"context": " [I]n 1620. July 1. Although each family controlled their own home and possessions, corn was farmed on a communal plot of land with the harvest divided equally amongst the settlers. The secular planters resented having to share their harvest with families whose religious beliefs so sharply conflicted with their own and as a result shirked work and resorted to thievery, whilst the Pilgrims resented the secular planters taking days off for holidays (especially Christmas) and their frequent carousing and revelry which often left them unfit for work. This conflict resulted in a corn production which was insufficient for the needs of the settlement. Because further supplies from their investors were withheld due to a dispute of the agreed upon payments from the settlement, starvation became imminent. As a result, for the planting of 1623, each family was temporarily assigned their own plot of land to tend with the right to keep all that was harvested from that plot, whether it be sufficient or not and all other production responsibilities and the goods produced therefrom would continue to remain as was originally agreed upon."}, {"context": " In the mid-17th century the True Levellers, followers of Gerrard Winstanley, believed in the concept of \"levelling men's estates\" in order to create equality. They also took over common land for what they believed to be the common good. In the 19th century the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints attempted to live a form of Christian communalism called the Law of Consecration, using organizations described as the United Order. This was established under Joseph Smith and was first practiced in Kirtland, Ohio in the early 1830s. This originally helped Latter Day Saints with settling in Ohio and was to have helped with building and sustaining entire communities in Missouri, including Independence, Adam-ondi-Ahman, and Far West. Subsequent events, including the 1838 Mormon War, made it impossible for these communities to thrive."}, {"context": " After the followers of Brigham Young settled in the Utah Territory, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) began to establish a series of community cooperatives, which were collectively called the United Order of Enoch. This program was used in at least 200 LDS communities, most of them in outlying rural areas, away from the central Mormon settlements. Most of the cooperatives lasted for only two or three years before returning to a more standard economic system. One of the last United Order cooperatives was located in Orderville, which continued until an 1885 anti-polygamy law enforcement action under the Edmunds Act effectively ended it by jailing many of its leaders."}, {"context": " The Law of Consecration (as expressed via the LDS Church) was an attempt to base income on a families' actual needs and wants, not on their ability to produce. This was to be done through a strictly voluntary covenant; it was not deemed acceptable to establish economic equality through force (see also Agency (LDS Church)). The LDS church has never called this practice communism, instead it has formally stated that, due to matters of spirituality, the United Order and communism are materially opposite in purpose:"}, {"context": " \"Communism and all other similar isms bear no relationship whatever to the United Order. They are merely the clumsy counterfeits which Satan always devises of the Gospel plan [...]. The United Order leaves every man free to choose his own religion as his conscience directs. Communism destroys man's God-given free agency; the United Order glorifies it. Latter-day Saints cannot be true to their faith and lend aid, encouragement, or sympathy to any of these false philosophies [...].\" (Message of the First Presidency, read by J. Reuben Clark Jr., 112th Annual General Conference, April 6, 1942.)"}, {"context": " The Church of Jesus Christ, also known as the Cutlerites, are a church in the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Alpheus Cutler and headquartered in Independence, Missouri. It has operated a functioning United Order since 1913. The Church of Jesus Christ require membership in the United Order as a condition of membership in the church as The Church of Jesus Christ has reject tithing and all similar means of finance. They state that they are attempting to replicate, as far as possible, the idea of \"all things common\" as taught in the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints."}, {"context": " Communalist experiments throughout history have often developed bitter animosities as the parties disputed about the exact issues underlying the confusion over definitions discussed above. The Paris Commune was one such case. \"Libertarian communalism\" is a severe and historically justified attempt to organize the political sphere fundamentally and democratically and to give it an ethical content. This is more than a political strategy. This is the desire to move from hidden or emerging democratic opportunities to a radical transformation of society, to a communitarian society focused on human needs, satisfying environmental requirements and developing a new ethic based on solidarity. This means a new definition of politics, a return to the primordial Greek meaning - the management of the community or the polis through the general meeting, on which the principal policy directions are formed, relying on reciprocity and solidarity."}, {"context": " Communalism as a political philosophy was first coined by the well-known libertarian socialist author and activist Murray Bookchin as a political system to complement his environmental philosophy of social ecology. While originally conceived as a form of social anarchism, he later developed Communalism into a separate ideology which incorporates what he saw as the most beneficial elements of left anarchism, Marxism, syndicalism, and radical ecology. Politically, Communalists advocate a stateless, classless, decentralized society consisting of a network of directly democratic citizens' assemblies in individual communities/cities organized in a confederal fashion."}, {"context": " This primary method used to achieve this is called libertarian municipalism which involves the establishment of face-to-face democratic institutions which are to grow and expand confederally with the goal of eventually replacing the nation-state. Unlike anarchists, Communalists are not opposed in principle to taking part in electoral politics \u2013 specifically municipal elections \u2013 as long as candidates are libertarian socialist and anti-statist in policy. Starting in the 1970s, Bookchin argued that the arena for libertarian social change should be the municipal level. In a 2001 interview he summarized his views this way:"}, {"context": " \"The overriding problem is to change the structure of society so that people gain power. The best arena to do that is the municipality \u2014 the city, town, and village \u2014 where we have an opportunity to create a face-to-face democracy.\" In 1980 Bookchin used the term \"libertarian municipalism\", to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the state with a confederation of free municipalities. Libertarian municipalism intends to create a situation in which the two powers \u2014 the municipal confederations and the nation-state \u2014 cannot coexist. Communalists hold that this is a method to achieve a liberated society."}, {"context": " Libertarian municipalism is not seen merely as an effort to \"take over\" city and municipal councils to construct a more \"environmentally friendly\" government, but also an effort to transform and democratize these structures, to root them in popular assemblies, and to knit them together along confederal lines to appropriate a regional economy. Bookchin summarized this process in the saying \"democratize the republic, then radicalize the democracy\". It is a dual power that contests the legitimacy of the existing state power. Communalists hold that such a movement should be expected to begin slowly, perhaps sporadically, in communities here and there that initially may demand only the ability to alter the structuring of society before enough interlinked confederations exist to demand the outright institutional power to replace the centralized state. The growing tension created by the emergence of municipal confederations would represent a confrontation between the state and the political realms. It is believed this confrontation can be resolved only after Communalism forms the new politics of a popular movement and ultimately captures the imagination of society at large."}, {"context": " Communalists see as equally important the need for confederation \u2013 the interlining of communities with one another through recallable delegates mandated by municipal citizens\u2019 assemblies and whose sole functions are coordinative and administrative. This is similar to the system of \"nested councils\" found in participatory politics. According to Bookchin, \"Confederation has a long history of its own that dates back to antiquity and that surfaced as a major alternative to the nation-state. From the American Revolution through the French Revolution and the Spanish Revolution of 1936, confederalism constituted a major challenge to state centralism\". Communalism is seen to add a radically democratic dimension to the contemporary discussions of confederation (e.g. Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia) by calling for confederations not of nation-states but of municipalities and of the neighborhoods of large cities as well as towns and villages."}, {"context": " Communalists make a clear distinction between the concepts of \"policy\" and \"administration\". This distinction is seen as fundamental to Communalist principles. Policy is defined by being made by a community or neighborhood assembly of free citizens; administration on the other hand, is performed by confederal councils a level up from the local assemblies which are composed of mandated, recallable delegates of wards, towns, and villages. If particular communities or neighborhoods \u2013or a minority grouping of them\u2013 choose to go their own way to a point where human rights are violated or where ecological destruction is permitted, the majority in a local or regional confederation would have the right to prevent such practices through its confederal council. This is explained not as a denial of democracy but the assertion of a shared agreement by all to recognize civil rights and maintain the ecological integrity of a region."}, {"context": " Policy-making remains local, but its administration is vested in the confederal network as a whole. The confederation is intended to be a community of communities based on distinct human rights and ecological imperatives. One of the core distinctions between left anarchism and Communalism is that Communalists are not opposed in principle to taking part in currently existing political institutions until such a time as it is deemed unnecessary. Communalists see no issues with supporting candidates or political parties in local electoral politics\u2014especially municipal elections\u2014as long as prospective candidates are libertarian socialist and anti-statist in policy. The particular goal of this process is to elevate Communalists (or those sympathetic to Communalism) to a position of power so as to construct face-to-face municipal assemblies to maximize direct democracy and make existing forms of representative democracy increasingly irrelevant."}, {"context": " Communalists are heavily critical of the market economy and capitalism. Believing that these systems destroy the environment by creating a 'grow or die' mentality and creating a large population of alienated citizens. They propose abolition of the market economy and money and replaces it with a decentralised planned economy controlled by local municipalities and cooperatives. In such a municipal economy \u2013 confederal, interdependent, and rational by ecological, not only technological, standards \u2013 Communalists hold that the special interests that divide people today into workers, professionals, managers, capitalist owners and so on would be melded into a general interest (a \"social\" interest) in which people see themselves as citizens guided strictly by the needs of their community and region rather than by personal proclivities and vocational concerns. Here, it is hoped, citizenship would come into its own, and rational as well as ecological interpretations of the public good would supplant class and hierarchical interests.  Communalists are heavily critical of modern cities, citing urban sprawl, suburbanisation, car culture, traffic congestion, noise pollution and other negative externalities as having severe effects on the local environment and society as a whole. Communalists propose to run cities democratically and confederally."}]}, {"title": "Communalism (South Asia)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communalism is a term used in South Asia to denote attempts to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to stimulate communal violence between those groups. It derives from history, differences in beliefs, and tensions between the communities. The term communalism was constructed by the British colonial authorities as it wrestled to manage violence between religious, ethnic and disparate groups in its colonies, particularly Africa and South Asia, in early 20th century."}, {"context": " Communalism is not unique to South Asia. It is found in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Australia. Communalism is a significant social issue in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The term came into use in early 20th century during the British colonial rule, where the rulers saw India divided into several communities and attempted to placate separate \"communal\" interests. The Hindu Mahasabh and the All-India Muslim League represented such communal interests, whereas Indian National Congress represented an overarching \"nationalist\" vision. In the run up to independence in 1947, communalism and nationalism came to be competing ideologies and led to the division of British India into the Republics of India and Pakistan. The bloody Partition violence gave a clear sense to every one what communalism leads to, and it has since been frowned upon in India."}, {"context": " Communal conflicts between religious communities, especially Hindus and Muslims, have been a recurring occurrence in independent India, occasionally leading to serious inter-communal violence. Examples of communalist violence, with strong motivations based on religious identity include: Incidents of \"communal violence\" cannot clearly be separated by incidents of [[terrorism]]. \"Communal violence\" tends to refer to mob killings, while terrorism describes concerted attacks by small groups of militants (see [[definition of terrorism]]). See also .  [[Category:Hate crime|Communal violence]] [[Category:Political terminology in India]] [[Category:Social issues in India]] [[Category:Religion and violence]] [[Category:Sectarian violence]]"}]}, {"title": "Communalism Combat", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communalism Combat is a monthly magazine published by Sabrang Communications since August 1993. The magazine is edited by husband wife team of Javed Anand and Teesta Setalvad. Javed Anand and Teesta Setalvad left their jobs as Bombay-based journalists in the mainstream press and founded \"Communalism Combat\" in 1993 to fight religious intolerance and communal violence. Their decision followed the December 1992 destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya by Hindu fundamentalists. \"Communalism Combat\" first appeared in August 1993."}, {"context": " In a 1999 interview, Javed Anand said that before the 1999 Lok Sabha elections \"Communalism Combat\" requested and received funds from the Congress Party, Communist Party of India (Marxist) and the Communist Party of India and ten individuals to run advertisements attacking the Sangh Parivar and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The total budget for this campaign was 15 million rupees, and eighteen ads appeared in 16-18 publications in English, Hindi and other Indian regional languages across India."}, {"context": " Some other papers, such as \"Meerut-e-Samachari\" and \"The Asian Age\", saw the ads and reprinted them at no cost. One of the ads, attacking the Sangh Parivar's attitude towards women, was endorsed by thirteen NGOs. They received notices from the government pointing out that it was illegal for NGOs that received foreign funding to intervene in politics. According to Javed Anand, as of 2003 the Air Freight company had supported \"Communalism Combat\" for 10 years by buying advertising space in the magazine."}, {"context": " The only other advertiser was the Madhya Pradesh government. The Tatas had regularly advertised in the newspaper, but had stopped when the BJP government came into power. The newspaper had been accused of illegally accepting funding from abroad, but this was not substantiated. The magazine discusses the activities of both minority and majority communal political parties. It also publishes personal accounts from individuals who are involved in the struggle against divisive forces both within and without India."}, {"context": " Javed Anand has said, \"Communalism Combat is a vehicle through which we try to combat communal conflict. Both minority and majority right-wing.\" In a 2003 interview by Jyoti Punwani, published in \"The Hoot\" magazine, when asked \"How do you resolve the age-old debate between objective and activist journalism?\" Javed Anand replied, He went on to say, The Magazine won a Prince Claus Award in 2000. The award citation said \"The independent magazine Communalism Combat (founded in 1992, Bombay, India) opposes ethnic fundamentalism and separatism in Indian culture, also in the diaspora. It creates a space for freedom: a platform for the discussion of current and often controversial issues...\".  The Milli Gazette described \"Communalism Combat\"'s special issue on the genocide in Gujarat as \"Superb\". This issue attempted to collect all possible information on the event including official statements and eyewitness accounts. It covered the role of officials and politicians in the riots, the destruction caused and the way in which regional media stirred up anger."}]}, {"title": "Communalness", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communalness, as suggested by Robert A. Freitas Jr., is a level of an emergent phenomenon which originates from electronic sentience, and represents a broader mode of thinking than just normal consciousness. While consciousness is limited to the individual, communalness describes a complex organization of numerous individuals which on a higher level is tightly connected to each other. Such an organization would maybe have the same intimate awareness of its own existence as a whole as people have consciousness of their own bodies."}]}, {"title": "Communards", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communards () were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and France's defeat. Following the war's conclusion, according to historian Benedict Anderson, thousands fled abroad, roughly 20,000 Communards were executed during the \"Semaine Sanglante\" (\"Bloody Week\"), and 7,500 were jailed or deported under arrangements which continued until a general amnesty during the 1880s; this action by Adolphe Thiers forestalled the proto-communist movement in the French Third Republic (1871\u20131940)."}, {"context": " The working class of Paris were feeling ostracized after the decadence of the Second Empire and the Franco-Prussian War. The Prussians besieged Paris in September 1870, causing suffering among Parisians. The poor ate cat or rat meat or went hungry. Out of resentment from this situation grew radical and socialist political clubs and newspapers. While Paris was occupied, socialist groups tried twice to overthrow the provisional government. In January 1871, Otto von Bismarck and the French minister of foreign affairs, Jules Favre, decided that France would hold national elections. Adolphe Thiers, who had been loyal to the Second Empire, was elected head of the newly monarchist republic. During the war, the capital had moved from Paris to Bordeaux. When the war ended, the government declined to move back to Paris and instead moved to Versailles. In the early morning of March 18, the government stationed in Versailles sent military forces into Paris to collect a reserve of cannons and machine guns. The detachment was still gathering the munitions when the Parisians awoke, and soon the soldiers were surrounded. In the chaos that followed, the soldiers killed two of their own, and by the end of the day, they were mainly sided with the Parisians. Insurgents now controlled the city, and they declared a new government called the Paris Commune, which lasted from March 18 to May 28, 1871."}, {"context": " Thiers refused to bargain with the Communards, despite their attempts to do so. He taught newly released French soldiers the \"evils\" of the Communards as the government prepared for a battle. Starting on May 21 and continuing through May 28, soldiers chased the National Guard members who sided with the Communards through the streets. Around 18,000 Parisians were killed, 25,000 were imprisoned, and thousands more were later executed. The violence of Bloody Week became a rallying cry for the working classes; politicians would later proudly brag about their participation with the Commune."}, {"context": " After Bloody Week, the government asked for an inquest into the causes of the uprising. The inquest concluded that the main cause of the insurrection was a lack of belief in God, and that this problem had to be corrected immediately. It was decided that a moral revival was needed, and a key part of this was deporting 4,500 Communards to New Caledonia. There was a two-part goal in this, as the government also hoped that the Communards would civilize the native Kanak people on the island. The government hoped that being exposed to the order of nature would return the Communards to the side of \"good.\""}, {"context": " New Caledonia had become a French colony in 1853, but just ten years later it still only had 350 European colonists. After 1863, New Caledonia became the principal destination of convicts transported from France after French Guiana was deemed too unhealthy for people of European descent. Thereafter, convicts from France made up the largest number of arriving residents. During the busiest time of deportation, there were estimated to be about 50,000 total people on the island. This included 30,000 Kanak, 2,750 civilian colonists, 3,030 military personnel, 4,000 \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\" (political criminals, including the Communards), 6,000 \"transport\u00e9s\" (common-law criminal convicts), and 1,280 criminal convicts who had served their sentences but were still living on the island. There were four main penitentiary sites on the island, one of which, Isle of Pines (1870\u20131880), was for the Communards deportees exclusively."}, {"context": " There were three sentences given out to the \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\": simple deportation, deportation to a fortified place, and deportation with forced labor. A simple deportation sentence was given to about two-thirds of the Communards. These people were sent to live in small villages on the Isle of Pines. Those sentenced to deportation to a fortified place were sent to the Ducos peninsula. About 300 Communards were sentenced to deportation with forced labor; these were the people convicted of crimes such as arson in addition to their political crimes. They were sent to be with the criminal convicts on Nou. Some prisoners\u2019 sentences were changed by the local penal administrators, and some were changed by the French government after petitions for leniency."}, {"context": " The government did not give out enough food, clothing, or shelter for all of the \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\". Some were assigned housing in rickety structures, but others had to find their own materials to build huts. Construction tools could be bought from the administration. Hunting for food became part of the daily routine. Some even traded their clothing for food with the Kanak. Not every part of life on the island was bad, however. Those living on the Isle of Pines and Ducos peninsula had freedom of movement, allowing them to live where they wanted and swim and fish at their leisure. They lived in simple wood huts that formed small, face-to-face communities that were intended to be self-governing."}, {"context": " Those sentenced to forced labor often endured abuse at the hands of their jailers. They were habitually mistreated while imprisoned, with whippings and the use of thumbscrews as common punishments for minor infractions. The National Assembly passed legislation that gave the wives and children of \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\" freedom to go to New Caledonia. It also gave wives a much greater right to property than they had in France, giving them half the property rights over any grant given to their husbands. Through this legislation, 174 families making up 601 people were reunited by 1877."}, {"context": " The relatively 'laid back' period of deportation ended when six d\u00e9port\u00e9s successfully escaped from the Ducos peninsula in 1874. Fran\u00e7ois Jourde was the main planner of the escape, which he developed while living in the port town of Noum\u00e9a. He had developed connections with a ship's captain, John Law, who was paid for his participation. The escapees, who included Jourde, Henri Rochefort, Paschal Grousset, Olivier Pain, Achille Balli\u00e8re, and Bastien Grandhille, boarded the boat under the cover of darkness and hid in the ship's hold until they cleared the harbor. Law dropped them off in Sydney, Australia, where crowds gathered to see them. Reports of their escape and the strict conditions they had lived under were printed in newspapers in Australia, the United States, and Europe. While the escapees attempted to publicize the plight of those still on the island, the d\u00e9port\u00e9s who remained had to deal with the repercussions of the escape. New rules forbade the prisoners from approaching the sea without permission, subjected them to daily roll calls, and banned them from entering the forests, even to collect firewood."}, {"context": " There are clearly documented examples of friendships between the Communards and the Kanak. Achille Balli\u00e8re and his friends visited the Kanak in their homes, shared meals with them, and played with their children. In the first few years of the deportation there were at least two marriages between the Kanak and Communards. However, the separation of the groups enforced after the 1874 escapes prevented any more such relationships from forming. During the eight-month-long Kanak insurrection in 1878, the Communards displayed a solidarity with their effort in the local press. This solidarity did not last long, however, as beliefs of racial differences soon took over."}, {"context": " Louise Michel looked to the Kanak youth for guidance and inspiration, and offered them moral support when they joined the 1878 insurrection. She ran a school for the Kanak and encouraged a local theater to perform a Kanak drama. She fully expected the achievements of the Kanak to match those of the French, though she wrote about them in very paternalistic terms that were common for her time period. Henri Rochefort gave a series of lectures that were published in the \"New York Herald Tribune\" while staying in the United States after his escape from New Caledonia. They were highly critical of the French government for denying its citizens liberty. His 1884 novel \"L\u2019\u00c9vad\u00e9: roman canaque\" helped shape the legend of the deportation. It offered a portrayal of the deportation and the policies of the government in New Caledonia that was different from what the governmental propaganda was promoting."}, {"context": " By the summer of 1878, the concern of amnesty for the Communards had become a significant political issue for France. In January 1879, the prime minister, Dufaure, granted mass pardons for the Communards in an attempt to stop the calls for amnesty. The pardons excused the convictions of the Communards. This was a problem for many people, however, who had never actually been convicted, only indicted. On January 16, the government published a list of \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\" whose sentences were pardoned. These people were allowed to return to France. More than one thousand Communards, however, were not included in this list. Men who had been convicted of crimes other than political or whose political opinions were considered too dangerous were left behind."}, {"context": " After the announcement of the pardons, many people in France were hoping for a stronger declaration of total amnesty. Petitions were passed around in all Paris neighborhoods to try and influence the government. A bill calling for total amnesty was introduced into the Chamber of Deputies by Louis Blanc and into the senate by Victor Hugo. The legislation that was eventually pushed through ensured full civil rights to those not convicted of crimes beyond political, and officially ended the prosecution of Communards in military courts. In July 1880, parliament finally voted for total amnesty."}, {"context": " Nine ships brought the \"d\u00e9port\u00e9s\" back to France. The first arrived in August 1879 and the last arrived in July 1880. Large crowds greeted the ships with celebrations. Donations of money were collected for the Communards and festivals were held to raise money. A committee of aid, headed by Louis Blanc and Victor Hugo, planned a dinner at which they dispersed a small amount of money to all who attended. Offers of employment were made, overcoats were given out, and temporary housing was offered. Some Communards chose never to come back to France after having built successful lives in New Caledonia or adopting other countries, such as Australia, as home. Many Communards who did come back returned to public life, such as Louise Michel. However, many found the adjustment to freedom difficult. Meetings between Communards and their former jailers occurred in the streets, at times leading to minor skirmishes. In December 1879, an investigative committee was formed to look into charges of torture in New Caledonia. The inquiry lasted two years, collecting the results of previous government studies, more than forty depositions, and testimonials to parliament by the Communards. The Communards\u2019 memories of abuse then became public record, which helped to heal the relations between the former prisoners and the state."}]}, {"title": "Communards (album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communards is the debut album by The Communards, released in 1986 on London Records. The album was produced by Mike Thorne, who had previously produced lead singer Jimmy Somerville's earlier band, Bronski Beat. Although the singles released ahead of the album were only moderately successful, the first single to be lifted from it after release, \"Don't Leave Me This Way\", was number one in the UK for four weeks and was the top-selling single in the UK that year. During the single's four-week run at number one, the album itself reached a chart peak of number seven, going on to spend a total of 45 weeks in the UK Albums Chart."}, {"context": " Musically, the album contains tracks that largely fall into one of two styles, either Hi-NRG (all of the singles lifted from the album were in this style) or piano ballads showcasing the talents of Richard Coles, a classically trained pianist. The standard \"Lover Man\" is arranged as a straight jazz number, albeit with the unusual twist of being performed as a duet. The front sleeve features a stark graphic design consisting of the group's name and logo against a black background. A photo of the duo appears on the back, while the inner sleeve features small photos of Coles, Somerville and Sarah Jane Morris, alongside the album credits and full lyrics for all the songs."}, {"context": " Two songs had dedications in the sleevenotes: \"Don't Leave Me This Way\" was dedicated to the GLC, and \"Reprise\" to Margaret Hilda Thatcher. All tracks by Jimmy Somerville and Richard Coles unless otherwise indicated. The 1997 remastered version of the album replaces \"Disenchanted (Dance)\" with \"Don't Leave Me This Way (Mega Mixes)\", a 22:55 version of the song which also incorporates the Communards song \"Sanctified\". This track was originally issued in 1986 as \"The Gotham City Mix\", when it was split across two sides of a 12\" single.  \"Disc 1\" \"Disc 2\""}]}, {"title": "Communards' Wall", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communards\u2019 Wall () at the P\u00e8re Lachaise cemetery is where, on May 28, 1871, one-hundred and forty-seven \"f\u00e9d\u00e9r\u00e9s\", combatants of the Paris Commune, were shot and thrown in an open trench at the foot of the wall. To the French left, especially socialists and communists, the wall became the symbol of the people's struggle for their liberty and ideals. Many leaders of the French Communist Party, especially those involved in the French Resistance, are buried nearby. The P\u00e8re Lachaise cemetery was established in May 1804 on a land owned by the Jesuits for centuries, and where P\u00e8re (\"Father\") Lachaise, confessor of Louis XIV, lived the latter part of his life. Cemetery of the aristocracy in the 19th century, it also received the remains of famous people from previous eras. During the spring of 1871 the last of the combatants of the Commune entrenched themselves in the cemetery. The \"Arm\u00e9e versaillaise\", which was summoned to suppress the Commune, had control over the area towards the end of the afternoon of May 28th, and shot all of the prisoners against the wall."}, {"context": " The massacre of the Communards did not put an end to the repression. During the fighting there were between 20,000 and 35,000 deaths, and more than 43,000 prisoners were taken; afterwards, a military court pronounced about a hundred death sentences, more than 13,000 prison sentences, and close to 4,000 deportations to New Caledonia. The memory of the Commune remained engraved in the people's memory, especially within the workers' movement which regenerated itself in a few years time. The first march before the Wall, at the call of Jules Guesde, took place on May 23, 1880, two months before the Communards' Amnesty: 25,000 people, a symbolic \"immortal\" red rose in their buttonholes, stood up against police forces. From that time on, this \"ascent to the Wall\", punctuated French labor force political history. Every year since 1880, the organizations of the French left have held a demonstration in this symbolic place during the last week of May. Jean Jaur\u00e8s -- although a child in the provinces at the time of the Commune, hence with no direct memory -- made the ascent several times, accompanied by \u00c9douard Vaillant, Jean Allemane, and by thousands of socialist, syndicalist, and anarchist militants.  The record-breaking demonstration took place on May 24, 1936: 600,000 people, led by L\u00e9on Blum and Maurice Thorez, right in the middle of the strikers movement, several weeks after the start of the Popular Front. \"\"Tombe sans croix et sans chapelle, sans lys d'or, sans vitraux d'azur, quand le peuple en parle, il l'appelle le Mur.\"\" - \"Tomb without a cross or chapel, or golden lilies, or sky blue church windows, when the people talk about it, they call it The Wall.\" - Jules Jouy"}]}, {"title": "Communarka shooting ground", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communarka or Kommunarka () was the site of NKVD mass shootings from 1937 to 1941 in the Novomoskovsky Administrative Okrug south-west of the centre of Moscow. It is now an Orthodox cemetery. According to the Federal Security Service, 10,000 people were killed and buried there."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 E\u0301lectrique du Be\u0301nin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 Electrique du B\u00e9nin - CEB (Electricity Community of Benin) is an international organisation co-owned by the governments of B\u00e9nin and Togo. It is in charge of developing electricity infrastructure in both countries which are strongly dependent on energy imports from Ghana. Most of the energy consumed by Benin and Togo is generated in Ghana. CEB owns the Nangbeto dam in Togo with an installed capacity of 64 MW. It has three customers: the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 B\u00e9ninoise d'\u00c9nergie \u00c9lectrique, Togo Electricit\u00e9 and the Togo Phosphates Agency (Office togolais des phosphates)."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 Juive Libe\u0301rale", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 Juive Lib\u00e9rale d'\u00cele-de-France (CJL) is a Jewish community led by the Rabbi Pauline Bebe, the first (and until 2007 the only) woman rabbi in France. The community belongs to the Reform movement. The CJL is part of the World Union for Progressive Judaism which unites more than 1000 communities worldwide. Although Reform Judaism is dominant within worldwide Judaism, it is still underdeveloped in France. In France, liberal Judaism is practiced by more than 15,000 people who are distributed in 16 communities belonging to several currents, including l\u2019Union lib\u00e9rale isra\u00e9lite de France (ULIF), le Mouvement juif lib\u00e9ral de France (MJLF), and la Communaut\u00e9 juive lib\u00e9rale d\u2019\u00cele-de-France (CJL). The CJL and a few other Reform communities are not accepted within the orthodox \"Consistoire\". The \"Consistoire\" was founded in 1808 after the French Revolution, when the Jews of France were granted civil rights under the direction of Napoleon, whose goal was to make mainstream Frenchmen out of the Jewish people."}, {"context": " To 1995 at 2006, the CJL's home was in the 18th arrondissement of Paris. The congregation originally resembled a chavurah, and was located in a small apartment. Since May 2006 the CJL have a new home, La \"Maison du juda\u00efsme\", in the 11th arrondissement of Paris. The \"Maison du juda\u00efsme\" consists of a multi-purpose complex center with a synagogue, a theater, an art exhibit and a library, as well as classrooms and offices. It also has a cultural organization called NITSA. As of 2013, the congregation of the CJL consists of more than 400 households, and about 100 children regularly go to the Talmud Torah and benefits from a warm atmosphere.  Pauline Bebe"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 Juive Libe\u0301rale de Gene\u0300ve", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 Juive Lib\u00e9rale de Gen\u00e8ve - GIL or Liberal Jewish Community of Geneva is a Liberal Jewish community located on the eastern side of the river Rhone in Geneva. Established as the Liberal Israelite Group (Groupe Isra\u00e9lite Lib\u00e9ral) on 7 December 1970, the organisation was later renamed the Communaut\u00e9 Juive Lib\u00e9rale de Gen\u00e8ve. Guided by its Rabbi Fran\u00e7ois Gara\u00ef since 1969, a year before its formal inception, the community held services in a variety of settings: a private library, a rented room on rue Moillebeau, and then at quai du Seujet. Finally, GIL relocated its activities to a purpose built facility, \"Beith GIL\", on Route de Ch\u00eane which hosts a Synagogue as well as spaces for community activities.  A member of international Jewish organisations such as the World Union for Progressive Judaism and the Federation for francophone progressive Judaism (F\u00e9d\u00e9ration du juda\u00efsme lib\u00e9ral francophone), GIL is an influential organisation in Reform Judaism both within Switzerland, but also within the global context of Reform Judaism."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Amiens Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Amiens M\u00e9tropole is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. Its population was 182,600 in 2015, of which 136,172 in Amiens proper. In 1991 a study was started by SIEPA (Syndicat Intercommunal d'Etude et de Ami\u00e9nois Programming), which was the origin of Greater Amiens, established in 1994 with 18 municipalities. Pursuant to the Chev\u00e8nement Act, 2000, it was turned into a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration, Amiens M\u00e9tropole, which then encompassed 20 communes with the arrival of Allonville and Bertangles."}, {"context": " Since then, Amiens M\u00e9tropole has continued to add more communes: 2003, with 21 municipalities, 2004 with 27 municipalities, and in 2007, 33 municipalities. In January 2018, it was expanded with 6 more communes from the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ni\u00e8vre et Somme to 39 communes. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 39 communes: The community is financed by the single business tax (15.27% 2006), which replaces the taxes once payable by the member communes."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Arles-Crau-Camargue-Montagnette", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Arles-Crau-Camargue-Montagnette (CCAM) is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Arles. It is located in the Bouches-du-Rh\u00f4ne department, in the Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur region, southeastern France. It was created in January 2004. Its population was 86,466 in 2014, of which 53,737 in Arles proper. It covers 1,446 square kilometres. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 6 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Bourges Plus", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Bourges Plus is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Bourges. It is located in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created October 21, 2002. Its population was 100,705 in 2014, of which 68,869 in Bourges proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Cannes Pays de Le\u0301rins", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Cannes Pays de L\u00e9rins is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Cannes. It is located in the Alpes-Maritimes department, in the Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur region, southeastern France. It was created in January 2014. Its population was 160,806 in 2014, of which 74,673 in Cannes proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Caux valle\u0301e de Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Caux vall\u00e9e de Seine was created as a communaut\u00e9 de communes on January 1, 2008 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It is a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration since January 2017. It evolved from an amalgamation of three earlier communaut\u00e9s de communes - Port-J\u00e9r\u00f4me, Caudebec-en-Caux and Canton of Bolbec. Since 1 January 2017, the communaut\u00e9 comprises the following 50 communes (with their INSEE codes):"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Coulommiers Pays de Brie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Coulommiers Pays de Brie is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of Coulommiers. It is located in the Seine-et-Marne department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, north-central France. It was created in January 2018 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Coulommiers and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Fertois. Its population was 76,612 in 2015, of which 15,476 in Coulommiers. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 43 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration C\u0153ur d'Essonne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration C\u0153ur d'Essonne (also: \"C\u0153ur d'Essonne Agglom\u00e9ration\") is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Sainte-Genevi\u00e8ve-des-Bois, a southern suburb of Paris. It is located in the Essonne department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 195,960 in 2014. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Grand Paris Sud Seine-Essonne-Se\u0301nart", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Grand Paris Sud Seine-Essonne-S\u00e9nart is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, in the southern suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Essonne and Seine-et-Marne departments, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 347,022 in 2014. Its seat is in Courcouronnes. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 24 communes, of which 8 (Cesson, Combs-la-Ville, Lieusaint, Moissy-Cramayel, Nandy, R\u00e9au, Savigny-le-Temple and Vert-Saint-Denis) in the Seine-et-Marne department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Limoges Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Limoges M\u00e9tropole is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Limoges. It is located in the Haute-Vienne department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, southwestern France. It was created in November 2002. Its population was 212,855 in 2014, of which 136,959 in Limoges proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Lisieux Normandie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Lisieux Normandie is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of Lisieux. It is located in the Calvados department, in the Normandy region, northwestern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Lintercom Lisieux - Pays d'Auge - Normandie, Vall\u00e9e d'Auge, Trois Rivi\u00e8res, Pays de Livarot and Pays de l'Orbiquet. It was expanded with six communes from the former communaut\u00e9s de communes de Cambremer in January 2018. Its population was 77,871 in 2015. Its seat is in Lisieux.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 54 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Melun Val de Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Melun Val de Seine is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. Since 1 January 2017, the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Melun Val de Seine includes 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Ni\u0302mes Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration N\u00eemes M\u00e9tropole is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of N\u00eemes. It is located in the Gard department, in the Occitanie region, southern France. It was created in January 2002. Its population was 261,666 in 2014, of which 154,349 in N\u00eemes proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 39 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Paris - Valle\u0301e de la Marne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Paris - Vall\u00e9e de la Marne is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2016 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Marne et Chantereine, \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Marne-la-Vall\u00e9e - Val Maubu\u00e9e\" and \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de la Brie Francilienne\". Its seat is in Torcy. It consists of 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Paris-Saclay", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Paris-Saclay \"(or CAPS)\" is an administrative entity in the Essonne d\u00e9partement, near Paris. Administrative center: Orsay. It was formed on 1 January 2016 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Plateau de Saclay and the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Europ'Essonne. The \"Communaut\u00e9 d'Agglom\u00e9ration Paris-Saclay\" is located at the north-west of the d\u00e9partement of Essonne, on the plateau de Saclay. The altitude is between 47m \"(154')\" in Palaiseau and 172m \"(564')\" in Gif-sur-Yvette.  The Communaut\u00e9 d'Agglom\u00e9ration Paris-Saclay consists of the following communes: Transports in the CAPS is managed by Mobicaps."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Pau Be\u0301arn Pyre\u0301ne\u0301es", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Pau B\u00e9arn Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the \"d\u00e9partement\" of Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Atlantiques, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It provides a framework within which local tasks common to the 31 member \"communes\" can be carried out together. It was created in 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Pau-Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es and the communaut\u00e9s de communes Gave et Coteaux and Miey de B\u00e9arn. The \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" is centred on the town of Pau.  The \"communes\" of the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" are: <BR>"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Plaine Valle\u0301e", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Plaine Vall\u00e9e is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, covering northwestern suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Val-d'Oise department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 183,063 in 2014. Its seat is in Montmorency. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Roissy Pays de France", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Roissy Pays de France is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Val-d'Oise and Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partements\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2016 by the merger of the former \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Val de France\", \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Roissy Porte de France\" and 17 communes that were part of the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plaines et Monts de France. Its seat is in Roissy-en-France. Its population was 349,490 in 2014, of which 2,881 in Roissy-en-France and 57,455 in Sarcelles, the largest commune of the communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration.  It consists of 42 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Saint Germain Boucles de Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Saint Germain Boucles de Seine is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, in the western suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Yvelines and Val-d'Oise departments, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 341,337 in 2014. Its seat is in Le Pecq. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 20 communes, of which one (Bezons) in the Val-d'Oise department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Saumur Val de Loire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Saumur Val de Loire is an intercommunal structure in the Loire Valley gathering 47 communes including Saumur and Montsoreau. It is located in the Maine-et-Loire \"d\u00e9partement\", in the Pays de la Loire \"r\u00e9gion\", western France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saumur Loire D\u00e9veloppement, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Loire Longu\u00e9, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Gennois and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la r\u00e9gion de Dou\u00e9-la-Fontaine.  The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saumur Val de Loire gathers 47 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Troyes Champagne Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Troyes Champagne M\u00e9tropole is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Troyes. It is located in the Aube department, in the Grand Est region, northeastern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Troyes with 3 former communaut\u00e9s de communes and 6 other communes. Its population was 172,967 in 2014, of which 62,204 in Troyes proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 81 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Val Parisis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Val Parisis is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, in the northwestern suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Val-d'Oise department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 270,724 in 2014. Its seat is in Beauchamp. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Val d'Yerres Val de Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Val d'Yerres Val de Seine is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, covering southern suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Essonne department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016. Its population was 177,769 in 2014. Its seat is in Brunoy. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 9 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Valence Romans Agglo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Valence Romans Agglo is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Valence and Romans-sur-Is\u00e8re. It is located in the Dr\u00f4me department, in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region, southeastern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Valence-Romans Sud Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Raye. Its population was 212,855 in 2014, of which 64,057 in Valence and 34,243 in Romans-sur-Is\u00e8re. Its seat is in Alixan.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 56 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Valenciennes Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Valenciennes M\u00e9tropole is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Valenciennes. It is located in the Nord department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in December 2000. Its population was 193,872 in 2014, of which 44,684 in Valenciennes proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 35 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration Versailles Grand Parc", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Versailles Grand Parc is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Versailles. It is located in the Yvelines and Essonne departments, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in November 2002. Its population was 269,179 in 2014, of which 87,550 in Versailles proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 19 communes, of which one (Bi\u00e8vres) in the Essonne department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration d'Agen", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'Agen is an administrative entity in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine, in southern France. Administrative center: Agen. It was formed in January 2013 by the merger of the communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'Agen and the communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Laplume-en-Bruilhois, and was also joined by the commune Pont-du-Casse. It covers 31 communes, and has a population of approximately 99,000. It is the largest such \"communaut\u00e9\" in Lot-et-Garonne. The 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration d'E\u0301pinal", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'\u00c9pinal is an administrative association of communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2013 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'\u00c9pinal-Golbey, Communaut\u00e9 de communes CAPAVENIR, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays d'Olima et du Val d'Avi\u00e8re, Communaut\u00e9 de communes Est-\u00c9pinal D\u00e9veloppement and 11 other communes. On 1 January 2017 it was expanded with the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de V\u00f4ge, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la V\u00f4ge vers les Rives de la Moselle, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Moyenne Moselle and 4 other communes. On 1 January 2018 it gained 2 communes from the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Mirecourt Dompaire. It consists of 78 communes, and has its administrative offices at Golbey.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 78 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration d'He\u0301nin-Carvin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration of H\u00e9nin-Carvin is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of H\u00e9nin-Beaumont and Carvin. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created on 1 January 2001. Its population was 125,941 in 2014, of which 26,922 in H\u00e9nin-Beaumont, the seat. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 14 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Be\u0301thune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de B\u00e9thune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of B\u00e9thune and Bruay-la-Buissi\u00e8re. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France regions, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de B\u00e9thune Bruay N\u0153ux et environs and the former \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" Artois-Lys and Artois-Flandres. Its population was 281,951 in 2014.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 100 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Cha\u0302lons-en-Champagne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Ch\u00e2lons Agglo, formally the , is a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration around Ch\u00e2lons-en-Champagne in the French department of Marne in the region of Grand Est. It was formed in January 2000 from the previous \"district de Ch\u00e2lons-en-Champagne\", which consisted of 9 communes. In 2014 it was expanded to 38 communes, when it was merged with the three communaut\u00e9s de communes of l'Europort, J\u00e2lons, and la R\u00e9gion de Cond\u00e9-sur-Marne, except that Pocancy in J\u00e2lons joined the communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion de Vertus (the three communaut\u00e9s de communes were respectively named after Vatry Europort, J\u00e2lons, and Cond\u00e9-sur-Marne). In January 2017, the 8 communes of the former communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion de Mourmelon joined the communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Ch\u00e2lons-en-Champagne."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Fe\u0301camp Caux Littoral", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de F\u00e9camp Caux Littoral is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of F\u00e9camp. It is located in the Seine-Maritime department, in the Normandy region, northern France. It was created on 1 January 2015 from the former communaut\u00e9 de communes de F\u00e9camp. It absorbed the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Valmont on 1 January 2017. Its population was 40,358 in 2015, of which 19,591 in F\u00e9camp proper. Its seat is in F\u00e9camp.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 33 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de La Rochelle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de La Rochelle is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of La Rochelle. It is located in the Charente-Maritime department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, western France. Its population was 171,577 in 2014, of which 78,026 in La Rochelle proper. In January 2000, the Community of cities of La Rochelle () turned into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de La Rochelle. It was expanded with 10 more communes in January 2014. The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de La Rochelle divides into two constituencies: Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency and Charente-Maritime's 2nd constituency. A mayor of La Rochelle from April 1999 to April 2014 and a MP of the Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency from April 1999 to June 2012, Maxime Bono was the president of the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de La Rochelle from its creation to April 2014  , when he was succeeded by Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Fountaine. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 28 communes: The communes are located in the cantons of Aytr\u00e9, Ch\u00e2telaillon-Plage (partly), La Jarrie (partly), Lagord and La Rochelle-1, 2 and 3."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Laval", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Laval (also: \"Laval Agglom\u00e9ration\") is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Laval. It is located in the Mayenne department, in the Pays de la Loire region, western France. It was created in 2001. Its population was 99,851 in 2014, of which 52,935 in Laval proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Lens \u2013 Lie\u0301vin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Lens \u2013 Li\u00e9vin is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Lens and Li\u00e9vin. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2000. It adopted the name Communaupole on June 25, 2004. Its population was 245,048 in 2014, of which 31,875 in Lens and 32,021 in Li\u00e9vin. The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Lens \u2013 Li\u00e9vin consists of the following 36 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Mantes-en-Yvelines", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Mantes-en-Yvelines (or CAMY) is a former administrative entity in the Yvelines d\u00e9partement, near Paris. Administrative center: Magnanville. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Grand Paris Seine et Oise in January 2016. The \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Mantes-en-Yvelines\" is located at the south-west of the d\u00e9partement of Yvelines, around the Seine river and \"Mantes-la-Jolie\" city. When he was created in 1999, CAMY had 8 communes. In 2004, 2005, 2011 and 2012, new members joined CAMY which has now 30 communes:"}, {"context": " In 2010, Dominique Braye said that the territory of the CAMY would spread in the coming years. In January 2012, thirteen new towns have made their entry into the \"agglom\u00e9ration\". In 2013, five new towns should be entering the aglommeration: Gargenville, Guernes, Fontenay-Mauvoisin, Fontenay-Saint-P\u00e8re and Saint-Martin-la-Garenne, bringing to 35 the number of the communes component CAMY. Note that the second city of the metropolitan area, Limay, 16 005 inhabitants, which is also the most industrialized and do not want to join the CAMY. It should, according to the SDCI Yvelines, join Issou and Guitrancourt, common on the right bank of the Seine, to form a new \"intercommunalit\u00e9\"."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Marne et Gondoire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Marne et Gondoire is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, part of the Marne-la-Vall\u00e9e new town, in the eastern suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Seine-et-Marne department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in December 2004. Its population was 95,968 in 2014. In July 2017, it was expanded with the communes Ferri\u00e8res-en-Brie and Pontcarr\u00e9. Its seat is in Bussy-Saint-Martin. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Saint-Die\u0301-des-Vosges", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saint-Di\u00e9-des-Vosges is an administrative association of communes in the Vosges and Meurthe-et-Moselle departments of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Saint-Di\u00e9-des-Vosges, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Vall\u00e9e de la Plaine, Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Hauts Champs, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays des Abbayes, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Neun\u00e9 and Communaut\u00e9 de communes Fave, Meurthe, Galil\u00e9e. On 1 January 2018 it gained 3 communes from the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Bruy\u00e8res - Vallons des Vosges. It consists of 77 communes, and has its administrative offices at Saint-Di\u00e9-des-Vosges.  The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 77 communes, of which 74 in the Vosges department and 3 (Bionville, Pierre-Perc\u00e9e and Raon-l\u00e8s-Leau) in Meurthe-et-Moselle:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Sophia Antipolis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Sophia Antipolis (CASA) is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Antibes. It is located in the Alpes-Maritimes department, in the Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur region, southeastern France. It was created in 2002, and takes its name from the technology park Sophia Antipolis. Its population was 179,920 in 2014, of which 76,981 in Antibes. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 24 communes: The \"Council of Communities\" is made up of 50 delegates from the above communes.  The CASA has for mandatory areas of jurisdiction: It is to oversee as well: Areas over which the CASA has shared jurisdiction:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de Vesoul", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Vesoul is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, in the Haute-Sa\u00f4ne department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comt\u00e9 region, eastern France. It was created in January 2012 from the former communaut\u00e9s de communes de l'agglom\u00e9ration de Vesoul. Its population was 34,310 in 2014, of which 16,369 in Vesoul, the seat of the communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de la Baie de Somme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de la Baie de Somme is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l\u2019Abbevillois, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion d'Hallencourt and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Baie de Somme Sud. Its population was 51,060 in 2015, of which 23,932 in Abbeville. This \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" includes 43 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration de la Re\u0301gion Dieppoise", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de la r\u00e9gion Dieppoise, also known as Dieppe Maritime is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Dieppe. It is located in the Seine-Maritime department, in the Normandy region, northern France. It was created on January 1, 2003. Its population was 49,770 in 2014, of which 31,088 in Dieppe proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration des Deux Baies en Montreuillois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration des Deux Baies en Montreuillois is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Montreuillois, Opale Sud and Mer et Terres d'Opale. Its population was 68,673 in 2014. Its seat is in Montreuil. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 46 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Bassin d'Aurillac", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Bassin d'Aurillac (CABA) is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Aurillac. It is located in the Cantal department, in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region, south-central France. It was created in 1999. Its population was 55,978 in 2014, of which 27,929 in Aurillac proper. As of December 2015, the CABA consists of 25 communes: The \"Council of Communities\" is made up of 79 delegates from the above communes. The CABA has for mandatory areas of jurisdiction:  It is to oversee as well: Areas over which the CABA has shared jurisdiction:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Bassin de Thau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Bassin de Thau (also: \"Thau Agglo\") is an intercommunal government structure, in the H\u00e9rault \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Occitanie \"r\u00e9gion\", in France. Since the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Nord du Bassin de Thau was merged into it in January 2017, the Bassin de Thau consists of 14 communes: The CABT has four mandatory areas of jurisdiction: It is to oversee as well: Areas over which the CABT has shared jurisdiction:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Boulonnais", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Boulonnais is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Boulogne-sur-Mer. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2000. Its population was 118,623 in 2014, of which 43,170 in Boulogne-sur-Mer proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Calaisis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Calaisis (also: \"Grand Calais Terres et Mers\") is an agglomeration community created on 28 December 2000 and located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It comprises the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Centre de la Martinique", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Centre de la Martinique is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Fort-de-France. It is located in Martinique, an overseas department and region of France. It was created in January 2001. Its population was 162,938 in 2014, of which 84,696 in Fort-de-France proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 4 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Cotentin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Cotentin is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Cherbourg-en-Cotentin, on the Cotentin Peninsula. It is located in the Manche department, in the Normandy region, northwestern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of 9 communaut\u00e9s de communes and the 2 new communes Cherbourg-en-Cotentin and La Hague. Its population was 187,335 in 2014, of which 83,790 in Cherbourg-en-Cotentin proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 132 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Grand Annecy", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Annecy is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Annecy. It is located in the Haute-Savoie department, in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region, southeastern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former \"communaut\u00e9 de l'agglom\u00e9ration d'Annecy\" and four communaut\u00e9s de communes. Its population was 203,078 in 2014, of which 128,422 in Annecy proper. The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Annecy consists of the following 34 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Grand Avignon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Grand Avignon (full name \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Avignon\") is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Avignon. It is located in the Vaucluse and the Gard departments, in the Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur and Occitanie regions, southern France. It was created in January 2001. Its population was 196,640 in 2015, of which 93,968 in Avignon proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 16 communes (of which 7 in the Gard department):"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Grand Besanc\u0327on", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Besan\u00e7on is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Besan\u00e7on. It is located in the Doubs department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comt\u00e9 region, northeastern France. It was created in December 2000. Its population was 192,816 in 2015, of which 116,676 in Besan\u00e7on proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 69 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Grand Gue\u0301ret", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Gu\u00e9ret was created on December 15, 1992 as \"communaut\u00e9 de communes de Gu\u00e9ret Saint-Vaury\" and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. In January 2013 it absorbed three more communes, and became a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration. In 2018 it absorbed three communes from the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Sud Ouest. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 25 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays Basque", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays Basque (), is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Bayonne and Biarritz. It is located in the Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Atlantiques department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, southwestern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9 de l'agglom\u00e9ration C\u00f4te Basque-Adour, communaut\u00e9 de l'agglom\u00e9ration Sud Pays Basque and eight communaut\u00e9s de communes. Its population was 309,723 in 2014, of which 49,550 in Bayonne and 25,480 in Biarritz.  The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays Basque consists of the following 158 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays Voironnais", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays Voironnais is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of Voiron. It is located in the Is\u00e8re department, in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region, eastern France. It was created in 2000. Its population was 95,268 in 2014, of which 20,775 in Voiron proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays de Fontainebleau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Fontainebleau is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed in January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du pays de Fontainebleau, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes entre Seine et For\u00eat and several communes from other communities. It includes 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays de Meaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Meaux (CAPM) is a \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The 4 communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts de la Go\u00eble were merged into it on 1 January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays de Saint-Malo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Saint-Malo (also: \"Saint-Malo Agglom\u00e9ration\") is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Saint-Malo. It is located in the Ille-et-Vilaine department, in the Normandy region, northwestern France. It was created in 2001. Its population was 84,336 in 2014, of which 47,670 in Saint-Malo proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 d'agglome\u0301ration du Pays de Saint-Omer", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Saint-Omer (CAPSO) is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saint-Omer, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Fauquembergues, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du pays d'Aire and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Morinie. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 53 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de Communes Saa\u0302ne et Vienne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Sa\u00e2ne et Vienne (CCSV) is a former intercommunality in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was created on 31 December 2001. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terroir de Caux in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de Communes du Canton de Criquetot-l'Esneval", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Criquetot-l\u2019Esneval was created on December 28, 2001 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A communaut\u00e9 de communes (, \"community of communes\") is a federation of municipalities (communes) in France. It forms a framework within which local tasks are carried out together. It is the least-integrated form of \"intercommunality\". On January 1, 2007, there were 2,400 \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" in France (2,391 in metropolitan France and 9 in the overseas \"d\u00e9partements\"), with 26.48 million people living in them. Since then, many communaut\u00e9s de communes have been merged or have joined a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration, a communaut\u00e9 urbaine or a m\u00e9tropole. While there were 2,408 communaut\u00e9s de communes in January 2010 and 1,842 in January 2016, there were only 1,009 communaut\u00e9s de communes left on 1 April 2018. The population of the \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" (2015 population data, 2018 borders) ranged from 104,039 inhabitants (Communaut\u00e9 de communes Le Gr\u00e9sivaudan, gathering the area between Grenoble and Chamb\u00e9ry) to 3,931 inhabitants (Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Causse de Labastide-Murat, Lot \"d\u00e9partement\")."}, {"context": " The \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" was created by a statute of the French Parliament enacted on February 6, 1992. The statute was modified by the Chev\u00e8nement Law of 1999. Unlike the \"communaut\u00e9s d'agglom\u00e9ration\" and the \"communaut\u00e9s urbaines\", \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" are not subjected to a minimum threshold of population to come into existence. The only constraint is geographical continuity. According to the \"\" (general law over regional administrative structures), a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" is a public establishment of inter-communal cooperation (EPCI), formed by several French municipalities, which cover a connected territory without enclave."}, {"context": " In 1999 when the Chev\u00e8nement Law regulatory modifications came into force, \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" already in existence that did not meet the criterion of geographical continuity were left untouched. The communes involved build a space of solidarity with a joint project of development, infrastructure building, etc. The \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" are currently funded by local taxes: The is a modified version of the tax whereby a proportion of the monies levied by the \"communaut\u00e9s des communes\" is paid back to the individual communes. The is sometimes presented as an unfair burden on the economy or even as a device for exporting jobs outside France, and it has been subject to a series of reforms over the years but central government undertakings to abolish it (and presumably to replace it) have yet to come to fruition. If they do, funding of the \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" will change fundamentally."}, {"context": " A \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" is administered by a council \"(conseil communautaire)\" made up of delegates from the municipal councils of each member commune. The number of seats allocated to each commune reflects the size of the commune. A member commune must have at least one seat on the council, and no individual commune may have more than half of the seats on the \"conseil communautaire\". Article 5214-16 of the CGCT requires the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" to exercise its responsibilities in the following policy areas:"}, {"context": " The \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" may also choose to exercise its responsibilities in at least one of the following six policy areas: The \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" may define its own personnel requirements and appoint appropriately qualified employees. In addition, and subject to d\u00e9partemental agreement it may exercise directly powers and responsibilities in certain social policy areas which are more normally handled at the d\u00e9partemental level. Subject to these requirements, it is for the communes themselves to determine precisely which competences they will delegate to the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\": they will do this based on their view of the individual commune's best interests. Once powers and responsibilities have been delegated to the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", they shall be exercised collectively through the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" and may no longer be exercised independently by individual member communes.  In 2008 there were 2,393 \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" in France. Of these, roughly 1,000 had been in existence for less than a year. New \"communaut\u00e9s\" are currently being created at a more rapid rate than in the early years. Nevertheless, there are still many rural communes that have not joined one of these groupings."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Arnon Boischaut Cher", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Arnon Boischaut Cher is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2011 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Portes du Boischaut and Rives du Cher. Its population was 8,469 in 2014. Its seat is in Ch\u00e2teauneuf-sur-Cher. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Artois-Lys", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Artois-Lys was created on December 23, 1992 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de B\u00e9thune-Bruay, Artois-Lys Romane in January 2017. It comprised the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Aubusson-Felletin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Aubusson-Felletin was created on 27 December 2000 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Grand Sud in January 2014. It comprised the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Avenir et de\u0301veloppement du secteur des Trois Rivie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avenir et d\u00e9veloppement du secteur des Trois Rivi\u00e8res is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Coulommiers in January 2013. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avenir et d\u00e9veloppement du secteur des Trois Rivi\u00e8res\" includes 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Avre Luce Moreuil", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avre Luce Moreuil is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avre Luce Noye in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" comprised 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Avre Luce Noye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avre Luce Noye is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avre Luce Moreuil and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Noye. Its seat is in Moreuil. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 49 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Baie de Somme Sud", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Baie de Somme Sud is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Baie de Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" covers part of the Baie de Somme and includes 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Bourganeuf et Roye\u0300re-de-Vassivie\u0300re", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Bourganeuf et Roy\u00e8re-de-Vassivi\u00e8re was created on December 31, 1999 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Sud Ouest in January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 comprised the following 20 communes: The policy and objectives of the communaut\u00e9 are economic development, improvement of habitat, preservation of natural heritage and enhancement of cultural heritage, maintaining and welcoming a changing population and economic activities. <br>"}, {"context": " The communaut\u00e9 plans to restore the sites of the \u2018\u2019Martin\u00e8che\u2019\u2019, at Soubrebost, where Martin Nadaud was born and died. It is proposed to create a memorial space and visitors\u2019 centre based on the life of Martin Nadaud. To this effect, a public subscription has been proposed. <br> To protect the site from any other development, the communaut\u00e9 purchased in 2007, nearly of the Mazure marshes located between Roy\u00e8re and Saint-Pierre-Bellevue. Placed under a forestry regime, the marsh will be managed by the National Forestry Office."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Bray-Eawy", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Bray-Eawy is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Neufch\u00e2telois, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Saint-Sa\u00ebns-Portes de Bray and 8 communes from the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bosc d'Eawy on 1 January 2017. It consists of 46 communes, and its seat is in Neufch\u00e2tel-en-Bray. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 46 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Bruye\u0300res - Vallons des Vosges", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Bruy\u00e8res - Vallons des Vosges is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2014 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Arent\u00e8le-Durbion-Padozel, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Vall\u00e9e de la Vologne, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Brouvelieures and three other communes. On 1 January 2018 it lost 3 communes to the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saint-Di\u00e9-des-Vosges. It consists of 34 communes, and has its administrative offices at Bruy\u00e8res.  The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 34 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C.I.A.T.E. du Pays Creuse-Thaurion-Gartempe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes C.I.A.T.E. du Pays Creuse-Thaurion-Gartempe was created on December 30, 1993 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Sud Ouest in January 2017. It comprised the following 27 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Campagne de Caux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Campagne de Caux was created on December 31, 1997 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Che\u0301ne\u0301railles, Auzances/Bellegarde et Haut Pays Marchois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles, Auzances/Bellegarde et Haut Pays Marchois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles, Auzances-Bellegarde and Haut Pays Marchois. Its population was 14,193 in 2015. Its seat is in Auzances. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 50 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Coteaux et Cha\u0302teaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Coteaux et Ch\u00e2teaux was a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the H\u00e9rault d\u00e9partement and in the Languedoc-Roussillon region of France. It was created by prefectoral decision on December 31, 1997 and dissolved on January 1, 2013 upon merging with surrounding communaut\u00e9 de communes to form the Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Avant-Monts du Centre H\u00e9rault. The name \"Coteaux et Ch\u00e2teaux\" derives from the local \"coteaux\" (vineyards) and \"ch\u00e2teaux\", both prominent in the countryside. \"Coteaux et Ch\u00e2teaux\" was constituted of the following communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Creuse Confluence", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Confluence is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Pays de Boussac, Carrefour des Quatre Provinces and \u00c9vaux-les-Bains Chambon-sur-Voueize. Its population was 17,416 in 2015. Its seat is in Boussac. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 42 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Creuse Grand Sud", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Grand Sud is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2014 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Aubusson-Felletin and Plateau de Gentioux. Its population was 12,995 in 2014. Its seat is in Aubusson. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Creuse Sud Ouest", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Sud Ouest is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes CIATE du Pays Creuse-Thaurion-Gartempe and Bourganeuf et Roy\u00e8re-de-Vassivi\u00e8re. Its population was 14,659 in 2015. Its seat is in Masbaraud-M\u00e9rignat. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 44 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur d'Ostrevent", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur d\u2019Ostrevent is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Nord \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur de Berry", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Berry is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Terres d'Y\u00e8vre and Vals de Cher et d'Arnon. Its population was 18,605 in 2014. Its seat is in Mehun-sur-Y\u00e8vre. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur de Caux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Caux was created on December 31, 1999 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was dissolved in January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 comprised the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur de Chartreuse", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Chartreuse is a French intercommunality composed of 17 communes, situated in the departments of Is\u00e8re and Savoie in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region. It was founded on January 1, 2014. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur de Combrailles", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Coeur de Combrailles is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Puy-de-D\u00f4me \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Saint-\u00c9loy in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes C\u0153ur du Pays Fort", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur du Pays Fort was created on December 4, 2002 and was located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Pays Fort Sancerrois Val de Loire in January 2017. It comprised the following 11 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Entre Mer et Lin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Entre Mer et Lin was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la C\u00f4te d'Alb\u00e2tre in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 17 communes: \"This article is based on the from the French Wikipedia, consulted on October 16, 2008.\""}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Falaises du Talou", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Falaises du Talou (before 2017: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts et Vall\u00e9es\") is a federation of 24 municipalities (a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was created on 1 January 2002, consisting of 16 communes. On 1 January 2017 it was expanded with 8 communes, and it was renamed \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes Falaises du Talou\". The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Fercher \u2013 Pays florentais", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Fercher - Pays florentais was created on December 29, 2000 and is located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 9 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Ga\u0302tinais-Val de Loing", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes G\u00e2tinais-Val de Loing is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2010, and also contains the communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Campagne G\u00e2tinaise. Its seat is in Souppes-sur-Loing. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Intercom Balleroy Le Molay-Littry", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Intercom Balleroy Le Molay-Littry is a former communaut\u00e9 de communes in the Calvados department, in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Isigny-Omaha Intercom in January 2017. The 22 communes of the \"communaut\u00e9\" were:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Isigny-Omaha Intercom", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Isigny-Omaha Intercom is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Calvados department, in the Normandy region, northwestern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Intercom Balleroy Le Molay-Littry, Isigny Grandcamp Intercom and Tr\u00e9vi\u00e8res. Its population was 27,642 in 2014. Its seat is in Le Molay-Littry. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 59 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes La Brie Centrale", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes La Brie Centrale is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes La Brie Centrale\" includes 7 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes La Brie Nangissienne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes La Brie Nangissienne is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Le Dunois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Le Dunois was created on December 18, 2000 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Le Gre\u0301sivaudan", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Le Gr\u00e9sivaudan is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Is\u00e8re \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2009 by the merger of several former communaut\u00e9s de communes. Its seat is in Crolles. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 46 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Les Avant-Monts", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Avant-Monts is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the H\u00e9rault d\u00e9partement and in the Occitanie region of France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Avant-Monts du Centre H\u00e9rault and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Orb et Taurou. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Avant-Monts du Centre H\u00e9rault was created on 1 January 2013 through the merging of Communaut\u00e9 de communes Coteaux et Ch\u00e2teaux, Communaut\u00e9 de communes Framps 909 and Communaut\u00e9 de communes Faug\u00e8res.  The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 25 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Les Gue\u0301s de l'Yerres", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Gu\u00e9s de l'Yerres is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. In 2017 most of its communes became part of the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Rivi\u00e8res et Ch\u00e2teaux. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Gu\u00e9s de l'Yerres\" included 6 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Les Sources de l'Yerres", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Sources de l'Yerres is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Briard in January 2017. It included 7 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Les Trois Provinces", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Trois Provinces was created on December 26, 2000 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. Its seat is in Sancoins. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 11 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Lisieux Pays d'Auge", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Lisieux Pays d'Auge is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" located in the Calvados \"d\u00e9partement\" and the Basse-Normandie \"r\u00e9gion\" of northwestern France. It was merged into the Lintercom Lisieux - Pays d'Auge - Normandie in January 2013, which was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Lisieux Normandie in January 2017. In 2004, it had a population of 36,085 inhabitants. The communaut\u00e9 de communes Lisieux Pays d'Auge included 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Loches Sud Touraine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Loches Sud Touraine is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Indre-et-Loire department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Loches D\u00e9veloppement, Montr\u00e9sor, Grand Ligueillois and Touraine du Sud. Its population was 54,478 in 2014. Its seat is in Loches. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 67 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Marche Avenir", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Marche Avenir is a former intercommunality in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was created on December 14, 1992 and was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Portes de la Creuse en Marche in January 2014. It comprised the following 6 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Monts et Valle\u0301es Ouest Creuse", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Monts et Vall\u00e9es Ouest Creuse is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Pays Dunois, Pays Sostranien and B\u00e9n\u00e9vent-Grand-Bourg. Its population was 26,167 in 2014. Its seat is in La Souterraine. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 43 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Moret Seine et Loing", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Moret Seine et Loing is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Nie\u0300vre et Somme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ni\u00e8vre et Somme is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Ouest d'Amiens and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Ni\u00e8vre et environs. On 1 January 2018 it lost 2 communes to the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Amiens M\u00e9tropole. It consists of 36 communes, and its seat is in Flixecourt. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 36 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Osartis Marquion", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Osartis Marquion is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2014 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Osartis and Marquion. Its population was 42,241 in 2014. Its seat is in Vitry-en-Artois. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 49 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Pays Fort Sancerrois Val de Loire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Pays Fort Sancerrois Val de Loire is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes C\u0153ur du Pays Fort, Haut-Berry - Val de Loire and Sancerrois. Its population was 19,358 in 2014. Its seat is in Sancerre. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 36 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Pays de Ne\u0301rondes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Pays de N\u00e9rondes was created on December 29, 2006 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Pe\u0301ve\u0300le-Carembault", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes P\u00e9v\u00e8le-Carembault is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Nord \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2014 by the merger of several former communaut\u00e9s de communes. Its seat is in Pont-\u00e0-Marcq. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 38 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Plaines et Monts de France", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plaines et Monts de France is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 June 2013 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de la Go\u00eble et du Multien, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Plaine de France, \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Portes de la Brie\" and 4 other communes. It lost 17 communes on 1 January 2016 to the newly created Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Roissy Pays de France. Its seat is in Dammartin-en-Go\u00eble, which is not part of the communaut\u00e9 de communes anymore.  Since 2016, it consists of 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Plateau de Caux-Doudeville-Yerville", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plateau de Caux-Doudeville-Yerville is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes d'Yerville-Plateau de Caux and Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plateau de Caux-Fleur de Lin on 1 January 2017. It consists of 40 communes, and its seat is in Doudeville. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 40 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Plateau de Caux-Fleur de Lin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Plateau de Caux-Fleur de Lin was created on December 31, 2001 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plateau de Caux-Doudeville-Yerville in January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Ponthieu-Marquenterre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ponthieu-Marquenterre is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes Authie-Maye, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Nouvion-en-Ponthieu and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Clocher. It consists of 71 communes, and its seat is in Rue. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 71 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Portes de la Creuse en Marche", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Portes de la Creuse en Marche is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Creuse department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, central France. It was created in January 2014 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Marche Avenir and Deux Vall\u00e9es and part of Petite Creuse. Its population was 6,815 in 2014. Its seat is in Genouillac. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Sauldre et Sologne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Sauldre et Sologne was created on December 29, 2005 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Seine-Austreberthe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes of Seine-Austreberthe was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" in the Haute-Normandie region of northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Rouen-Elbeuf-Austreberthe in January 2010. The Agglomeration community comprised the following 14 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Somme Sud-Ouest", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Somme-Sud-Ouest is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Contynois, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion d'Oisemont and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud-Ouest Ami\u00e9nois. It consists of 121 communes, and its seat is in Poix-de-Picardie. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 121 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Terre d'eau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terre d'eau is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Bulgn\u00e9ville entre Xaintois et Bassigny, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Vittel-Contrex\u00e9ville and the commune Thuilli\u00e8res. It consists of 45 communes, and has its administrative offices at Bulgn\u00e9ville. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 45 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Terre de Picardie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terre de Picardie is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Haute Picardie and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Santerre. It consists of 44 communes, and its seat is in Estr\u00e9es-Deni\u00e9court. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 44 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Terres du Haut Berry", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terres du Haut Berry is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Terres Vives, Hautes Terres en Haut Berry, and Terroirs d'Angillon. Its population was 25,190 in 2014. Its seat is in Les Aix-d'Angillon. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 36 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Terroir de Caux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terroir de Caux is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res, Communaut\u00e9 de Communes Sa\u00e2ne et Vienne, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Varenne et Scie and 3 communes from the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bosc d'Eawy on 1 January 2017. Its seat is in Bacqueville-en-Caux. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 81 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Vierzon Pays des cinq Rivie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes Vierzon Pays des cinq Rivi\u00e8res was created on November 29, 2002 and is located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Vierzon-Sologne-Berry in January 2013. It comprised the following 3 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes Vierzon-Sologne-Berry", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes Vierzon-Sologne-Berry is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Cher department, in the Centre-Val de Loire region, central France. It was created in January 2013 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Vierzon Pays des cinq Rivi\u00e8res and Vall\u00e9es vertes du Cher Ouest. Its population was 33,369 in 2014. Its seat is in Vierzon. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes d'Auzances-Bellegarde", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes d\u2019Auzances-Bellegarde was created on December 27, 1995 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles, Auzances/Bellegarde et Haut Pays Marchois in January 2017. It comprised the following 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes d'E\u0301vaux-les-Bains Chambon-sur-Voueize", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes d\u2019\u00c9vaux-les-Bains Chambon-sur-Voueize was created on December 28, 2001 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Confluence in January 2017. It comprised the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes d'Ye\u0300res et Plateaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes d'Y\u00e8res et Plateaux was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was dissolved in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 12 communes and their populations: Communes of the Seine-Maritime department"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Be\u0301ne\u0301vent-Grand-Bourg", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de B\u00e9n\u00e9vent-Grand-Bourg was created on December 17, 1991 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Monts et Vall\u00e9es Ouest Creuse in January 2017. It comprised the following 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Blangy-sur-Bresle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Blangy-sur-Bresle is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" (in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\") and also in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" (Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\") of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes interr\u00e9gionale Aumale - Blangy-sur-Bresle in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" includes 19 communes in Seine-Maritime and 5 communes in the Somme:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Che\u0301ne\u0301railles", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles (Community of communes of Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles) was created on December 31, 2001 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles, Auzances/Bellegarde et Haut Pays Marchois in January 2017. It comprised the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Desvres-Samer", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Desvres-Samer is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2009 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Pays de la Fa\u00efence de Desvres and Samer et environs. Its population was 23,067 in 2014. Its seat is in Desvres. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Haute Picardie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Haute Picardie is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terre de Picardie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Londinie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Londini\u00e8res was created on 11 December 2000 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Marne et Chantereine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Marne et Chantereine is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Paris - Vall\u00e9e de la Marne in January 2016. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Marne et Chantereine\" included 4 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Marquion", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de Marquion is a former intercommunality in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of northern France. It was created on December 20, 2000 and was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Osartis Marquion in January 2014. The communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Mirecourt Dompaire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Mirecourt Dompaire is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Mirecourt (which had absorbed the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Xaintois in January 2014), Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Secteur de Dompaire and 16 other communes. On 1 January 2018 it lost 2 communes to the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'\u00c9pinal. It consists of 76 communes, and has its administrative offices at Mirecourt.  The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 76 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Miribel et du Plateau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Miribel et du Plateau is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Ain \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" includes 6 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Parthenay-Ga\u0302tine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Parthenay-G\u00e2tine is the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of Parthenay. It is located in the Deux-S\u00e8vres department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, western France. It was created in January 2014 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Parthenay with 3 other former \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\". Its population was 39,131 in 2014, of which 10,928 in Parthenay proper. It provides a framework within which local tasks common to the member communes can be carried out together. Amongst its other responsibilities, the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" organises the \"Festival Ludique International de Parthenay\", a major games festival held in Parthenay every July.  The former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes de Parthenay\" was established in 2001 by six communes in the Parthenay area. In 2010, the commune of F\u00e9nery joined the community. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 39 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Petite-Camargue", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Petite-Camargue is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Gard \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Languedoc-Roussillon \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Saint-Sae\u0308ns-Portes de Bray", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Saint-Sa\u00ebns-Porte de Bray was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was the first \u201cCommunaut\u00e9 de communes\u201d to be created in the region. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Bray-Eawy in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 14 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Samer et environs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de Samer et environs was created on December 31, 2001, and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\" in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Desvres-Samer in January 2009. It comprised the following eight communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Seine-E\u0301cole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Seine-\u00c9cole is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Melun Val de Seine in January 2016. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Seine-\u00c9cole\" included 2 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Tre\u0301vie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de Tr\u00e9vi\u00e8res is a former communaut\u00e9 de communes in the Calvados department, in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Isigny-Omaha Intercom in January 2017. The 25 communes of the \"communaut\u00e9\" were:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de Varenne et Scie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Varenne et Scie is a former intercommunality in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was created on January 1, 2002. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terroir de Caux in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Atre\u0301batie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Atr\u00e9batie was created on December 21, 1998 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Campagnes de l'Artois in January 2017. It comprised the following 27 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Auxillois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Auxillois is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ternois in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Est de la Somme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Est de la Somme is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme and Aisne \"d\u00e9partements\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Hamois and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Neslois. It consists of 42 communes (one of which, Pithon, in Aisne), and its seat is in Ham. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 42 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Hesdinois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Hesdinois was created on December 27, 2001 and was located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Sept Vall\u00e9es in January 2014. It comprised the following 27 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Ore\u0301e de la Brie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Or\u00e9e de la Brie is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne and Essonne departments and in the \u00cele-de-France region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 4 communes (of which 1, Varennes-Jarcy, in Essonne):"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Ouest Vosgien", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Ouest Vosgien is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges and Haute-Marnedepartments of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bassin de Neufch\u00e2teau, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Ch\u00e2tenois and the commune Aroffe. It consists of 70 communes, and has its administrative offices at Neufch\u00e2teau. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 70 communes, of which 1, Liffol-le-Petit, in Haute-Marne:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Ouest d'Amiens", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Ouest d'Amiens is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ni\u00e8vre et Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de l'Yerres a\u0300 l'Ancoeur", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Yerres \u00e0 l'Ancoeur is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in January 2017. There are 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Basse\u0301e - Montois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Bass\u00e9e - Montois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2014 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Bass\u00e9e and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Montois. Its seat is in Donnemarie-Dontilly. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 42 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Brie Boise\u0301e", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie Bois\u00e9e is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Briard in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie Bois\u00e9e included 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Brie des Moulins", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Moulins is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Coulommiers in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Moulins\" includes 4 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Brie des Rivie\u0300res et Cha\u0302teaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Rivi\u00e8res et Ch\u00e2teaux is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by several communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes La Brie Centrale, Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Gu\u00e9s de l'Yerres, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Seine, Communaut\u00e9 de communes Vall\u00e9es et Ch\u00e2teaux and Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Yerres \u00e0 l'Ancoeur. Its seat is in Le Ch\u00e2telet-en-Brie. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Campagne Ga\u0302tinaise", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Campagne G\u00e2tinaise is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes G\u00e2tinais-Val de Loing in January 2010. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Campagne G\u00e2tinaise\" included 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Champagne balgycienne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Champagne balgycienne was created on December 22, 1999 and is located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre region of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Septaine in January 2010. It comprised the following 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Co\u0302te d'Alba\u0302tre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de la C\u00f4te d\u2019Alb\u00e2tre was created on December 28, 2001 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was enlarged with the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes Entre Mer et Lin and 6 communes from the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Caux on 1 January 2017. It consists of 63 communes, and its seat is in Cany-Barville. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 63 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Gerbe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la GERBE is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Provinois in April 2013. GERBE is an acronym for: \"Guilde Economique Rurale de la Brie Est\" (Rural Economic Guild of Eastern Brie); it is also the French word for \"sheaf (of corn)\". The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la GERBE\" includes 9 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Haute Somme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Haute Somme is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. Its seat is in P\u00e9ronne. Since 2013, when it merged with the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Combles and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Roisel, it consists of 60 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Morinie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Morinie is a former intercommunality in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was created on December 29, 1993, and it was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Saint-Omer in January 2017. It comprises the following 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Petite Creuse", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Petite Creuse was created on December 26, 2002 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was dissolved in 2013. The communaut\u00e9 comprised the following 9 communes: The Community of communes aims to involve and unite the local communes with a view to establishing joint development projects and the development of space. It aims to exercise its powers in the interest of the community in: Spatial planning, economic development, tourism, housing and the protection and enhancement of the environment as well as local roads, sport and culture."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Plaine de France", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Plaine de France is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Plaine de France (also known as the Pays de France) within the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plaines et Monts de France in June 2013. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Plaine de France\" included 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Porte des Vosges Me\u0301ridionales", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Porte des Vosges M\u00e9ridionales is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Porte des Hautes-Vosges, Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vosges M\u00e9ridionales and the commune Saint-Am\u00e9. It consists of 10 communes, and has its administrative offices at Saint-\u00c9tienne-l\u00e8s-Remiremont. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion d'Audruicq", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion d'Audruicq is the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the town of Audruicq. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created on December 29, 1993. Its population was 27,332 in 2014, of which 5,422 in Audruicq proper. Its seat is in Audruicq. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion d'Hallencourt", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion d'Hallencourt is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Baie de Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" includes 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion d'Oisemont", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion d'Oisemont is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Somme Sud-Ouest in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 34 communes: See: The body has jurisdiction over:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion de Bapaume", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion de Bapaume was created on December 30, 1992 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud-Artois in January 2013. It comprises the following 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion de Fre\u0301vent", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion de Fr\u00e9vent was created on December 31, 1998 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ternois in January 2017. It comprised the following 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion de Rambervillers", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion de Rambervillers is an administrative association of communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Grand Est. It has its administrative offices at Rambervillers. As of 2017, the association comprises 30 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Re\u0301gion du Cha\u0302telet-en-Brie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion du Ch\u00e2telet-en-Brie (between 2010 and 2017: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes Vall\u00e9es et Ch\u00e2teaux\") is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne department in the \u00cele-de-France region of France. It was dissolved in January 2017 when most of its communes joined the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Rivi\u00e8res et Ch\u00e2teaux. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la R\u00e9gion du Ch\u00e2telet-en-Brie\" included 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Septaine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Septaine was created on December 15, 1999 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Terre des Deux Caps", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Terre des Deux Caps was created on December 17, 2001 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Touraine du Sud", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Touraine du Sud is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Indre-et-Loire \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Centre-Val de Loire \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Loches Sud Touraine in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Touraine du Sud\" included 21 communes: Histogramme"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Valle\u0301e d'Auge", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Vall\u00e9e d'Auge is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Calvados \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Lisieux Normandie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 20 communes, 3 from the canton of Bretteville-sur-Laize and 17 from the canton of M\u00e9zidon-Canon :"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Visandre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Visandre is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in 2010. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Visandre\" included 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes de la Vo\u0302ge vers les Rives de la Moselle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la V\u00f4ge vers les Rives de la Moselle (before 2008: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Deux Rives de la Moselle\") is a former administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'\u00c9pinal in January 2017. The association had its administrative offices at Arches. It took its name from the V\u00f4ge Plateau and the river Moselle. Created in 2006, the association comprised 11 communes as follows:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des 4 rivie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des 4 rivi\u00e8res is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime and Eure \"d\u00e9partements\" and in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bray-Normand, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Forges-les-Eaux and Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts et de l'Andelle on 1 January 2017. It consists of 53 communes (of which 1 in Eure), and its seat is in Gournay-en-Bray. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 53 communes, of which 52 in the Seine-Maritime department and 1 (Bouchevilliers) in Eure:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Ballons des Hautes-Vosges", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Ballons des Hautes-Vosges is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2013 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Mynes et Hautes-Vosges du sud and Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Ballons des Hautes Vosges et de la Source de la Moselle. It consists of 8 communes, and has its administrative offices at Le Thillot. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Campagnes de l'Artois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Campagnes de l'Artois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes L'Atr\u00e9batie, La Porte des Vall\u00e9es and Les Deux Sources. Its population was 34,687 in 2014. Its seat is in Avesnes-le-Comte. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 96 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Co\u0302tes et de la Ruppe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des C\u00f4tes et de la Ruppe is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Lorraine \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. Created on Christmas Eve 1997, the association had its administrative offices at Cl\u00e9rey-la-C\u00f4te. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bassin de Neufch\u00e2teau in January 2013. There are 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Deux Sources", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Deux Sources (fr: the community of communes of the Two Sources) is a French former inter-commune structure, located in the department of the Pas-de-Calais and the Hauts-de-France region. It was established in 2008 from the merger of 2 Communaut\u00e9 de communes: the communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Pas-en-Artois (the community of communes in Pas-en-Artois) and the communaut\u00e9 de communes des Villages solidaires (community of communes of independent villages). It was dissolved in January 2017, when most of its communes joined the Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Campagnes de l'Artois.  It was made up of the following communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Deux Valle\u0301es (Creuse)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Deux Vall\u00e9es was created on 30 December 1998 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Portes de la Creuse en Marche in January 2014. It comprised the following 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Hautes Terres en Haut Berry", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Hautes Terres en Haut Berry was created on December 28, 2002 and was located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terres du Haut Berry in January 2017. It comprised the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Hautes Vosges", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Hautes Vosges is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de G\u00e9rardmer-Monts et Vall\u00e9es, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Haute Moselotte and Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terre de Granite. It consists of 22 communes, and has its administrative offices at G\u00e9rardmer. The association comprises 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Hauts de Flandre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Hauts de Flandre is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Nord \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2014 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Colme, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Bergues, Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Flandre and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Yser. Its seat is in Bergues. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Hauts de Flandre consists of the following 40 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Marches de Lorraine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Marches de Lorraine is a French former administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and on the south-western edge of the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes les Vosges c\u00f4t\u00e9 Sud-Ouest in January 2017. Created in 2004, the association had its administrative offices at Tollaincourt. Membership covered 18 communes as follows: All of these communes are also included among the twenty-six communes in the Canton of Lamarche.  The Association of Lamarche communes has the following responsibilities:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Monts de la Goe\u0308le", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts de la Go\u00eble is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Meaux in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts de la Go\u00eble\" included 4 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Monts et de l'Andelle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Monts et de l'Andelle was created on January 1, 2003 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\" of north-western France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des 4 rivi\u00e8res in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Pays d'Oise et d'Halatte", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Pays d'Oise et d'Halatte is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" located in the Oise \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Pays d'Oise et d'Halatte was created in January 1998. It includes 17 \"communes\" with a population of about 34,000 inhabitants. The \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" is located in the heart of the Oise valley, 60 km north from Paris, between Creil and Compi\u00e8gne, 6 km away from the A1 highway and 40 km away from the Charles De Gaulle airport.  About half of its territory is located within the scope of the \"Parc naturel r\u00e9gional Oise-Pays de France\", and seven of its municipalities are located on the Oise River. The territory, with an area of 14,002 hectares, has about 34,000 inhabitants. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Pays d'Opale", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Pays d'Opale (before 2017: \"communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Pays\") was created on 27 December 1996 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 27 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Portes du Boischaut", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Portes du Boischaut was created on December 14, 1999 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Arnon Boischaut Cher in 2011. It comprised the following 7 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Rampennes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Rampennes was created on December 31, 2001, and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre region of France. It was dissolved on December 31, 2012. It comprised the following five communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Rives du Cher", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Rives du Cher was created on December 28, 1993 and is in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Arnon Boischaut Cher in 2011. It comprised the following 5 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Sept Valle\u0301es", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Sept Vall\u00e9es (also: \"7 Vall\u00e9es comm\") is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2014 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes L'Hesdinois, Canche Ternoise and Val de Canche et d'Authie. Its population was 30,410 in 2014. Its seat is in Hesdin. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 69 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Sources de la Creuse", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Sources de la Creuse was created on December 28, 2001 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Haute-Corr\u00e8ze Communaut\u00e9 in January 2017. It comprised the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Terroirs d'Angillon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Terroirs d\u2019Angillon was created on December 29, 2000 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terres du Haut Berry in January 2017. It comprised the following 8 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Trois Rivie\u0300res", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res (\"association of communes of the three rivers\") may refer to the following associations in France:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Trois Rivie\u0300res, Aisne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res (before January 2017: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays des Trois Rivi\u00e8res\") is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Aisne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"region\" of France. Since June 2016, its seat is in Buire. The most populous commune is Hirson. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res\" includes 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Trois Rivie\u0300res, Seine-Maritime", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res is a former intercommunality in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was created on 31 December 2001. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terroir de Caux in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 25 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Valle\u0301es vertes du Cher Ouest", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vall\u00e9es vertes du Cher Ouest was created on December 31, 1993 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Vierzon-Sologne-Berry in January 2013. It comprised the following 7 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Vals de Cher et d'Arnon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vals de Cher et d\u2019Arnon was created on November 18, 1999 and is located in the Cher \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Berry in January 2017. It comprised the following 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Villes S\u0153urs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Villes S\u0153urs (before 2017: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes interr\u00e9gionale de Bresle maritime\") is a Communaut\u00e9 de communes located in both the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" (in the Normandy \"r\u00e9gion\") and the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" (Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\") of north-western France. On 1 January 2017 it was expanded with 7 communes, and renamed \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Villes S\u0153urs\". The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 28 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Vosges Me\u0301ridionales", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vosges M\u00e9ridionales (before 2009: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Trois Rivi\u00e8res\") is a former administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Porte des Vosges M\u00e9ridionales in January 2017. The association had its administrative offices at Plombi\u00e8res-les-Bains. Created in 1996, the association comprised 3 of the 4 communes in the Canton of Plombi\u00e8res-les-Bains as follows:  The grouping originally took its name from three small rivers:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes des Vosges co\u0302te\u0301 Sud-Ouest", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vosges c\u00f4t\u00e9 Sud-Ouest is an administrative association of rural communes in the Vosges department of eastern France. It was created on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Marches de Lorraine, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de la Sa\u00f4ne Vosgienne, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Sa\u00f4ne et Madon and the commune Grandrupt-de-Bains. It has its administrative offices at Darney. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 60 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Ban d'E\u0301tival", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ban d'\u00c9tival is a former administrative association of communes in the Vosges \"department\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays des Abbayes in January 2014, which was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Saint-Di\u00e9-des-Vosges in January 2017. The association had its administrative offices at \u00c9tival-Clairefontaine. Created in 1998, the association consisted of 3 communes as follows:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bassin de Neufcha\u0302teau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bassin de Neufch\u00e2teau is a former administrative association of mostly rural communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Ouest Vosgien in January 2017. Created in 2013, the community of Communes had its administrative offices at Neufch\u00e2teau. It had a population of 18,300 inhabitants. Membership covered 42 communes as follows: Since 15 December 2012, the Community of Communes of the Neufch\u00e2teau Region includes 42 municipalities and towns. It is the result of the merger of three old communities of communes (Pays de Neufch\u00e2teau / Pays de Jeanne / Pays des C\u00f4tes et de la Ruppe)  The objective of the Community of Commues of the Neufch\u00e2teau Region is to pursue shared objectives and pool administrative resources in respect of the following policy areas:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bernavillois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bernavillois is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Berry charentonnais", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Berry charentonnais was created on December 29, 1999 and was located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre region of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du C\u0153ur de France in January 2013. It comprised the following 9 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bocage", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bocage is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bocage\" included 3 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bocage et de l'Hallue", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bocage et de l'Hallue is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 26 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bosc d'Eawy", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bosc d\u2019Eawy was created on January 1, 2002 and was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was dissolved on 1 January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprises the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Bray-Normand", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bray-Normand (before 2015: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Gournay-en-Bray\") was created on 31 December 2001 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des 4 rivi\u00e8res in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton d'Aumale", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton d'Aumale is a former intercommunality in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was created on December 31, 2001. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes interr\u00e9gionale Aumale - Blangy-sur-Bresle in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 15 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton d'Hucqueliers et environs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton d'Hucqueliers et environs was created on December 27, 1996 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Pays du Montreuillois in January 2017. It comprised the following 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton de Bray-sur-Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Bray-sur-Seine (after 2006: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Bass\u00e9e\") is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Bass\u00e9e - Montois in January 2014. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Bray-sur-Seine\" included 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton de Fauquembergues", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Fauquembergues is a former intercommunality in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was created on December 31, 1993, and it was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Saint-Omer in January 2017. It comprises the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton de Forges-les-Eaux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Forges-les-Eaux was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des 4 rivi\u00e8res in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 21 communes: Communes of the Seine-Maritime department"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton de Fruges et environs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Fruges et environs was created on December 12, 1994 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Pays du Montreuillois in January 2017. It comprised the following 25 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Canton de Valmont", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton de Valmont was created on January 1, 2000 and was located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of northern France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de F\u00e9camp Caux Littoral in January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 comprised the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Carrefour des Quatre Provinces", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Carrefour des Quatre Provinces was created on December 28, 1998 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Confluence in January 2017. It comprised the following 14 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Contynois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Contynois (until 2015: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Conty\") is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Somme Sud-Ouest in January 2017. The community is located in three valleys: This rural area is easily accessible from junction 17 of the A16 motorway. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 23 communes: The communes delegate members to the communaut\u00e9 to be responsible for the following:"}, {"context": " The budget of the community is financed by additional taxes levied by the individual communes. The communaut\u00e9 has developed an economic hub at Essertaux and a warehouse for the packaging and selling of fresh potatoes and has completed the extension of the gymnasium at Conty. <br> It actively promotes helping the elderly, maintains 140\u00a0km of roads within the communaut\u00e9 and has created a refuse disposal & recycling site at L\u0153uilly. It has provided: The Communaut\u00e9 also finances the Tourist Office of the Valley of the Selle."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du C\u0153ur de France", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du C\u0153ur de France was created on December 14, 1999 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. In 2013 it absorbed 6 of the communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Berry charentonnais. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Doullennais", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Doullennais is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Grand Roye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Grand Roye is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was created on 1 January 2012, and the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Montdidier was merged into it on 1 January 2017. It consists of 62 communes, and its seat is in Montdidier. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 62 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Haut Clocher", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Clocher is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ponthieu-Marquenterre in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Haut Pays Marchois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Pays Marchois was created on November 19, 2001 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ch\u00e9n\u00e9railles, Auzances/Bellegarde et Haut Pays Marchois in January 2017. It comprised the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Haut Pays du Montreuillois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Haut Pays du Montreuillois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes Canton de Fruges et environs and Canton d'Hucqueliers et environs. Its population was 16,543 in 2014. Its seat is in Fruges. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 49 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Kochersberg", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Kochersberg is a French intercommunal structure gathering most of the communes of the natural region of Kochersberg, d\u00e9partement of Bas-Rhin, r\u00e9gion Grand-Est. It has been created on 14 December 2001 ; its head is set in Truchtersheim. The communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ackerland joined the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Kochersberg in January 2013. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Montois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Montois is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Bass\u00e9e - Montois in January 2014. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Montois\" included 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Montreuillois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Montreuillois was created on July 12, 1999 and was located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration des Deux Baies en Montreuillois in January 2017. It comprised the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Nord du Bassin de Thau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Nord du Bassin de Thau is a former intercommunal government structure, in the H\u00e9rault \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Languedoc-Roussillon \"r\u00e9gion\", in France. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Nord du Bassin de Thau stems from the Syndicat Intercommunal du Nord du Bassin de Thau. It was created on December 21, 2000, and it was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Bassin de Thau in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Nord du Bassin de Thau\" included 6 communes: The CABT has for mandatory areas of jurisdiction:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Cre\u0301c\u0327ois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Cr\u00e9\u00e7ois is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Dunois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Dunois was created on December 3, 2002 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Monts et Vall\u00e9es Ouest Creuse in January 2017. It comprised the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Fertois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Fertois is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Coulommiers Pays de Brie in January 2018. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consisted of the following 19 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Hamois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Hamois is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Est de la Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 16 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Neslois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Neslois is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Est de la Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Neufcha\u0302telois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Neufch\u00e2telois is a former intercommunality in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was created on 1 January 1998. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Bray-Eawy in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprised the following 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays Sostranien", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays Sostranien was created on December 28, 1995 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Monts et Vall\u00e9es Ouest Creuse in January 2017. It comprised the following 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays d'Issoudun", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays d'Issoudun was created on 20 December 1993 and is located in the Cher and Indre \"d\u00e9partements\" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 12 communes, of which three (Ch\u00e2rost, Chezal-Beno\u00eet and Saint-Ambroix) in the Cher department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Bie\u0300re", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Bi\u00e8re is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in January 2017, when most of its communes joined the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Fontainebleau. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Bi\u00e8re\" included 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Bitche", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Bitche (French for \"Pays de Bitche community of communes\", ) is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\"), located in the Moselle department of the Grand Est administrative region in north-eastern France. The Pays de Bitche community of communes was established on by a prefectoral decree dating from . It resulted from the merging of 3 of the 4 former Pays de Bitche communaut\u00e9 de communes : \"Bitche et environs\", \"Volmunster et environs\" and \"Pays du Verre et du Cristal\".  The last one of the four, the \"communaut\u00e9 de communes de Rohrbach-l\u00e8s-Bitche\", has merged on . Since then, every commune of the Bitche canton has been part of the same intercommunality. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 46 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Boussac", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Boussac was created on December 28, 1992 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Confluence in January 2017. It comprised the following 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Cha\u0302tenois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Ch\u00e2tenois is a former administrative association of communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de l'Ouest Vosgien in January 2017. Created in 1994, the association had its administrative offices at Ch\u00e2tenois. The association comprised 16 member communes as follows:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Colombey et du Sud Toulois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Colombey et du Sud Toulois is a French administrative association of communes in the Meurthe-et-Moselle and Vosges \"departments\" of eastern France and in the region of Grand-Est. Its seat is in Colombey-les-Belles. The association comprises 38 communes, spread over two departments:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Coulommiers", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Coulommiers is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was created in January 2013 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Templiers and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avenir et d\u00e9veloppement du secteur des Trois Rivi\u00e8res. In January 2017 it was joined by the communes of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie des Moulins. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Coulommiers Pays de Brie in January 2018.  The communaut\u00e9 de communes consisted of the following 24 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Jeanne", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Jeanne is a former administrative association of communes in the Vosges \"department\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. The grouping is named after Joan of Arc, who was born at Domr\u00e9my-la-Pucelle around 1412, and who has been an iconic figure in France ever since her popular rediscovery as part of the surge in nationalism that France, along with the most of the rest of Europe, experienced during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Created in 1998, the association had its administrative offices at Coussey. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bassin de Neufch\u00e2teau in January 2013.  The association comprises 10 member communes as follows:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Montereau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Montereau (before 2017: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Deux Fleuves\") is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. On 1 January 2017 it was expanded with 7 communes from the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bocage G\u00e2tinais, and its name was changed from \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Deux Fleuves\" to \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Montereau\". The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Saint-E\u0301loy", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Saint-\u00c9loy is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Puy-de-D\u00f4me department, in the Auvergne-Rh\u00f4ne-Alpes region, central France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes C\u0153ur de Combrailles, Saint-\u00c9loy Communaut\u00e9 and Pionsat, joined by 5 other communes. Its population was 16,680 in 2014. Its seat is in Saint-\u00c9loy-les-Mines. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 34 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de Seine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Seine is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was dissolved in January 2017. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de Seine includes 4 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de l'Ourcq", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de l'Ourcq is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de la Fai\u0308ence de Desvres", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de la Fa\u00efence de Desvres is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais \"region\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Desvres-Samer in January 2009. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" comprised 23 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays de la Goe\u0308le et du Multien", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays de la Go\u00eble et du Multien (acronym: PGM) is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Plaines et Monts de France in January 2013. Before 2007, it was named \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Dammartin-en-Go\u00eble\". It included 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Pays du Coquelicot", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays du Coquelicot is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 66 communes: The communes of the communaut\u00e9 delegate their representatives with the following responsibilities: The Community is funded by: The Community Council of 12 November 2007 approved a draft covering 19 communes, mainly in the north of the territory, <br>which could accommodate wind turbines, if the Prefect approves the application."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Petit Caux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Petit Caux was created on August 24, 1982 and is located in the Seine-Maritime \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Normandy region of north-western France. It was disbanded on 1 January 2016 when its member communes merged into the new commune Petit-Caux. The Communaut\u00e9 de communes comprises the following 18 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Plateau de Gentioux", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du Plateau de Gentioux was created on December 15, 1992 and is located in the Creuse \"d\u00e9partement\" of the Limousin region of central France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Creuse Grand Sud in January 2014. It comprised the following 7 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Provinois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Provinois is a federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. Since 2013, when it absorbed the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la GERBE and the commune Chalautre-la-Grande, the \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Provinois\" includes 40 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Saint-Polois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Saint-Polois was created on 28 December 1995 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. In January 2013 it was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Vertes Collines du Saint-Polois, which was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ternois in January 2017. It comprised the following 43 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Santerre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Santerre is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terre de Picardie in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Saulnois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Saulnois (Community of communes of Saulnois) is a federation of municipalities of the rural Saulnois region, located in the department of Moselle in Eastern France. It consists of 128 communes. Its seat is in Ch\u00e2teau-Salins. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 128 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Secteur de Dompaire", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Secteur de Dompaire (before 2009: \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Pays d'Entre Madon et Moselle\") is a former administrative association of communes in the Vosges \"d\u00e9partement\" of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Mirecourt Dompaire in January 2017. Its seat was in Dompaire. The association comprised 27 communes as follows:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Sud Arrageois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud Arrageois was created on December 29, 1992 and is located in the Pas-de-Calais \"d\u00e9partement\", in northern France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud-Artois in January 2013. It comprised the following 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Sud-Artois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud-Artois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2013 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes R\u00e9gion de Bapaume, canton de Bertincourt and Sud Arrageois (partly). Its population was 28,284 in 2014. Its seat is in Bapaume. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 64 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Sud-Ouest Amie\u0301nois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Sud-Ouest Ami\u00e9nois is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Somme Sud-Ouest in January 2017. The communaut\u00e9 de communes succeeded the \"Syndicat mixte Pays Somme sud ouest\" (SMPSSO), the dissolution taking effect on 1 January 2008. The \u2018\u2019syndicat mixte\u2019\u2019, created in 1981, covered 6 of the neighbouring cantons. The new body was created by order of the prefect on 30 June 2004. It included 63 communes in the cantons of Hornoy-le-Bourg, Poix-de-Picardie and part of the Canton de Molliens-Dreuil.  This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 63 communes: The Community Council, on 14 June 2007, adopted the principle of membership of the \"Syndicat mixte du Pays du Grand Ami\u00e9nois\". The Community plans to carry out or support actions:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Ternois", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ternois is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Pas-de-Calais and Somme departments, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the former communaut\u00e9s de communes L'Auxillois, R\u00e9gion de Fr\u00e9vent, Le Pernois and Vertes Collines du Saint-Polois. Its population was 39,295 in 2014. Its seat is in Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 104 communes (of which one, Vitz-sur-Authie, in the Somme department):"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Territoire Nord Picardie is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bernavillois, the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Bocage et de l'Hallue and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Doullennais. On 1 January 2018 it lost 5 communes to the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Amiens M\u00e9tropole and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Somme. It consists of 65 communes, and its seat is in Doullens.  The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 65 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Val Bre\u0301on", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Br\u00e9on is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Briard in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Br\u00e9on\" included 10 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Val Briard", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Briard is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Brie Bois\u00e9e, Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Br\u00e9on, Communaut\u00e9 de communes Les Sources de l'Yerres and the commune Courtomer. In July 2017, the communes Ferri\u00e8res-en-Brie and Pontcarr\u00e9 left the communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val Briard and joined the Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration de Marne et Gondoire. Its seat is in La Houssaye-en-Brie.  It consists of 21 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Val de Nie\u0300vre et environs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Ni\u00e8vre et environs is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Ni\u00e8vre et Somme in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" comprised 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Val de Noye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Noye is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Avre Luce Noye in January 2017. This \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 27 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Val de Somme", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Val de Somme is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 33 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Vimeu", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu Industriel and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu Vert. Its seat is in Friville-Escarbotin. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 25 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Vimeu Industriel", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu Industriel is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 13 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du Vimeu Vert", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu Vert is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Vimeu in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 12 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du canton de Combles", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Combles is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Haute Somme in 2013. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" comprised 20 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du canton de Montdidier", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Montdidier is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Grand Roye in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 34 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du canton de Nouvion-en-Ponthieu", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Nouvion-en-Ponthieu is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Ponthieu-Marquenterre in January 2017. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du canton de Roisel", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du canton de Roisel is a former \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Somme \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the Picardie \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de la Haute Somme in 2013. This \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes\" included 22 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes du pays d'He\u0301ricourt", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes du pays d'H\u00e9ricourt is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\", an intercommunal structure, in the Haute-Sa\u00f4ne and Doubs departments, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comt\u00e9 region of France. Since January 2017, it consists of 24 communes. It has its administrative offices at H\u00e9ricourt. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 24 communes, of which three (Aibre, Laire and Le Vernoy) in the Doubs department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes en Terres Vives", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes en Terres Vives was created on June 15, 1994 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes Terres du Haut Berry in January 2017. It comprised the following 11 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes entre Seine et Fore\u0302t", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes entre Seine et For\u00eat is a former federation of municipalities (\"communaut\u00e9 de communes\") in the Seine-et-Marne \"d\u00e9partement\" and in the \u00cele-de-France \"r\u00e9gion\" of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays de Fontainebleau in January 2017. The \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes entre Seine et For\u00eat\" included 3 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes interre\u0301gionale Aumale - Blangy-sur-Bresle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 de communes interr\u00e9gionale Aumale - Blangy-sur-Bresle is a \"communaut\u00e9 de communes\" in the Seine-Maritime and Somme \"d\u00e9partements\" and in the Normandy and Hauts-de-France \"r\u00e9gions\" of France. It was formed on 1 January 2017 by the merger of the former Communaut\u00e9 de communes du Canton d'Aumale and the Communaut\u00e9 de communes de Blangy-sur-Bresle. It consists of 44 communes (of which 10 in Somme), and its seat is in Blangy-sur-Bresle. The communaut\u00e9 de communes consists of the following 44 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 de communes les Terres d'Ye\u0300vre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 de communes les Terres d\u2019Y\u00e8vre was created on December 4, 2002 and is located in the Cher \" d\u00e9partement \" of the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. It was merged into the new Communaut\u00e9 de communes C\u0153ur de Berry in January 2017. It comprised the following 3 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 intercommunale des Villes solidaires", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 intercommunale des Villes solidaires is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Saint-Pierre. It is located in R\u00e9union, an overseas department and region of France. It was created in December 2002. Its population was 179,356 in 2014, of which 82,552 in Saint-Pierre proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 6 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 intercommunale du Nord de La Re\u0301union", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 intercommunale du Nord de La R\u00e9union is the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Saint-Denis. It is located in R\u00e9union, an overseas department and region of France. It was created in December 2000. Its population was 202,180 in 2014, of which 146,104 in Saint-Denis proper. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration consists of the following 3 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 me\u0301tropolitaine de Que\u0301bec", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 m\u00e9tropolitaine de Qu\u00e9bec (CMQ), or Quebec Metropolitan Community, is an administrative division of the province of Quebec, comprising the metropolitan area of Quebec City. The CMQ is one of the two metropolitan communities of Quebec. Effective January 1, 1970, the Qu\u00e9bec Urban Community () (\"CUQ\") was established, which governed the area surrounding Quebec City on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. Together with the CUQ, the Qu\u00e9bec Urban Community Transit Commission () (\"CTCUQ\") and the Greater Qu\u00e9bec Water Purification Board () (\"BAEQM\") were also established. Each of the three covered different groups of municipalities:"}, {"context": " The CUQ was replaced by the CMQ on January 1, 2002. The CMQ exercised jurisdiction over a wider geographical area. Quebec was amalgamated with the cities of Beauport, Cap-Rouge, Charlesbourg, L'Ancienne-Lorette, Lac-Saint-Charles, Loretteville, Saint-\u00c9mile, Sainte-Foy, Sillery, Val-B\u00e9lair, Vanier and Saint-Augustin-de-Desmaures. In the 2006 demerger, L'Ancienne-Lorette and Saint-Augustin-de-Desmaures regained separate status. L\u00e9vis was amalgamated with Charny, Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, Saint-Nicolas, Saint-R\u00e9dempteur, Saint-Romuald, Pintendre, Saint-\u00c9tienne-de-Lauzon, Sainte-H\u00e9l\u00e8ne-de-Breakeyville and Saint-Joseph-de-la-Pointe-de-L\u00e9vy."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 tarifaire vaudoise", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 tarifaire vaudoise, also known by its marketing name mobilis, is a Swiss tariff network covering the whole of the canton of Vaud. <BR>"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communaut\u00e9 urbaine (French for \"urban community\") is the second most integrated form of intercommunality in France, after the \"Metropolis\" (). A \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\" is composed of a city (commune) and its independent suburbs (independent communes). The first communaut\u00e9s urbaines were created by the French Parliament on 31 December 1966. Originally there were only four, found in the metropolitan areas of Bordeaux, Lille, Lyon and Strasbourg. Later, others were created in other metropolitan areas. The purpose of the communaut\u00e9s urbaines was to achieve cooperation and joint administration between large cities and their independent suburbs. This step often followed failed attempts to merge the communes within a metropolitan area. The status of the communaut\u00e9 urbaine was modified by the Chev\u00e8nement Law of 1999. Since the creation of the m\u00e9tropoles in 2011, several former communaut\u00e9s urbaines have become m\u00e9tropoles, for instance Nice, Strasbourg, Marseille, Nancy and Dijon."}, {"context": " Unlike the case in either a communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration or communaut\u00e9 de communes, communes cannot leave a communaut\u00e9 urbaine freely. As of April 2018, there are 11 communaut\u00e9s urbaines in France (all in metropolitan France), with a combined population of 2.43 million inhabitants (as of 2015, in 2018 limits). All of the urban areas in France with more than half a million inhabitants are a communaut\u00e9 urbaine or a m\u00e9tropole. Some communaut\u00e9s urbaines are relatively small; smaller than many communaut\u00e9s d'agglom\u00e9ration."}, {"context": " The communaut\u00e9s urbaines are each administrated by a council called a \"conseil communautaire\" (community council), composed of a proportional representation of members of municipal councils of member towns. The council is headed by an executive composed of a president and vice-presidents elected by the council. The president is in many cases the mayor of the main or most populous city. The mayors of the others cities are often also vice-presidents of the executive, the deputies-mayors are often members of the council, as are some members of the towns' councils."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine Angers Loire Me\u0301tropole", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Angers Loire M\u00e9tropole is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Angers. It is located in the Maine-et-Loire department, in the Pays de la Loire region, western France. It was created in January 2016, replacing the previous \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration d'Angers Loire M\u00e9tropole\". It was expanded with the commune of Loire-Authion in January 2018. Its population was 301,245 in 2015, of which 155,984 in Angers proper. The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Angers Loire M\u00e9tropole gathers 31 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine Caen la Mer", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communaut\u00e9 urbaine Caen la Mer is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Caen. It is located in the Calvados department, in the Normandy region, northwestern France. It was created in January 2017, replacing the previous \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Caen la Mer\" and two communaut\u00e9s de communes. Its population was 268,876 in 2014, of which 109,750 in Caen proper. The communaut\u00e9 urbaine had its origins in the creation in 1990 of a \"District of Greater Caen\" (DGC) which consisted of 18 communes."}, {"context": " Since then the grouping transformed itself in 2002 into an Agglomeration called the \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Caen\". Since 2004 it has been called the \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Caen la mer\". The community welcomed ten more member communes on 1 January 2003 and Sannerville on 1 January 2004. From 1 January 2013, a further six communes were accepted into the agglomeration: three communes from the former \"Communaut\u00e9 de communes des Rives de l'Odonn\" (which consisted of Tourville-sur-Odon, Verson, and Mouen) and Colleville-Montgomery, Ouistreham, and Saint-Andr\u00e9-sur-Orne. This regrouping created an agglomeration of 236,167 inhabitants. In January 2017 the agglomeration community merged with the former commune communities of Entre Thue et Mue and Plaine Sud de Caen, and became an urban community."}, {"context": " The agglomeration staff numbered 650 workers in 2009, with an annual budget of \u20ac245 million, of which \u20ac95.9 million were investments. The communaut\u00e9 urbaine Caen la Mer consists of the following 50 communes: As of 2013 the agglomeration included 35 communes. The Commune members send a total of 139 delegates to the communitary council In accordance with the provisions of the Chev\u00e8nement Act of 12 July 1999, the responsibilities delegated by the member municipalities of Caen La Mer are divided into three groups:"}, {"context": " These were determined by the decision of the Community Council of 21 January 2005. The communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration collects only one tax: a business tax (TP) of 16.06% per annum of the rental value of buildings. Contractual arrangements for urban development, local development and the economic and social integration of community interests (e.g. the \"City Contract\" and \"Urban Contract for social cohesion\", the \"Grand City project\" and ANRU convention, and the local integration program for the economy (PLIE)"}, {"context": " The community has all the skills of the member communes to monitor, collect and treat wastewater through two stations. Creation of a telecommunications network available for all The population of the metropolitan area has experienced the same trend as in similar cities in France: the central city saw its population stagnate or decline, while suburban areas experienced strong growth. The total population has decreased from 201,369 in 1990 to 223,106 in 2006. Demographic trends (Source: INSEE) From 1962 to 1999 there was no double counting of people who stayed in multiple communes.  Sources: Local INSEE 1968 [http://www.insee.fr INSEE Caen Guided Light Transit"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine Creusot Montceau", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Creusot Montceau is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the cities of Le Creusot and Montceau-les-Mines. It is located in the Sa\u00f4ne-et-Loire department, in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comt\u00e9 region, eastern France. It was created in 1970. Its population was 98,377 in 2014, of which 22,418 in Le Creusot and 19,412 in Montceau-les-Mines. The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Creusot Montceau consists of the following 34 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine Grand Paris Seine et Oise", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine Grand Paris Seine et Oise is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, covering the western suburbs of Paris. It is located in the Yvelines department, in the \u00cele-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 2016 by the merger of the previous \"communaut\u00e9s d'agglom\u00e9ration\" Mantes-en-Yvelines, Deux Rives de la Seine, Poissy-Ach\u00e8res-Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, Seine & Vexin and the \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" Coteaux du Vexin and Seine-Mauldre. Its population was 411,100 in 2014. Its seat is in Aubergenville.  The communaut\u00e9 urbaine consists of the following 73 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine d'Alenc\u0327on", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine d'Alen\u00e7on is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Alen\u00e7on. It is located in the Orne and Sarthe departments, in the Normandy and Pays de la Loire regions, northwestern France. It was created in December 1996. Its population was 58,919 in 2014, of which 27,161 in Alen\u00e7on proper. The communaut\u00e9 urbaine consists of the following 34 communes, of which 5 (Ar\u00e7onnay, Champfleur, Chenay, Saint Paterne - Le Chevain and Villeneuve-en-Perseigne) in the Sarthe department:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine d'Arras", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine d'Arras is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Arras. It is located in the Pas-de-Calais department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in January 1998, replacing the previous \"district urbain d'Arras\". Its population was 110,169 in 2014, of which 42,161 in Arras proper. The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine d'Arras consists of the following 46 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine de Dunkerque", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine de Dunkerque is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Dunkirk (). It is located in the Nord department, in the Hauts-de-France region, northern France. It was created in October 1968. Its population was 203,770 in 2014, of which 90,721 in Dunkirk proper. The communaut\u00e9 urbaine consists of the following 17 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine de Que\u0301bec", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine de Qu\u00e9bec (also known as the Qu\u00e9bec Urban Community) was a regional municipal body that existed in the area around Quebec City from 1970 to 2001. In the late 1960s, the Government of Quebec saw increasing problems arising in the governance of the urban areas of Quebec City, Montreal and Hull because of the system of municipal organization in effect at that time: The current remedies involving intermunicipal agreements, amalgamation and annexation were seen as being inadequate, as they were discretionary and piecemeal in nature. The Province opted to establish \"urban communities\" in all three areas, which would possess mandatory and optional powers appropriate to each. A particular concern in the Quebec area was the large presence of government agencies whose exemption from property taxes created a significant revenue shortfall to the municipalities, together with the need to strengthen intermunicipal cooperation to deal with the situation. This was confirmed in the debate on the implementing bill, where then Minister of Municipal Affairs Robert Lussier stated that the reform was \"aimed at economies of scale through administrative centralization, and at reducing futile rivalries between municipalities.\" The move was supported by all MLAs in the Quebec area, including former Premier Jean Lesage and former \"Cr\u00e9ditiste\" member Gaston Tremblay."}, {"context": " This was not the first consolidation effort the Province had undertaken at the local level, as local school boards had already gone through something similar in the early 1960s. Officials at the local level had already begun discussions as early as 1965 on possible ways to establish joint activities, but nothing concrete had emerged by the time the Province unveiled its draft bill in June 1969. Although Quebec City itself was favourable to the provincial proposal, there was significant opposition from the other municipalities in the area, but such tension tended to fade away over the five years following the CUQ's creation."}, {"context": " Effective January 1, 1970, the Communaut\u00e9 urbaine de Qu\u00e9bec () (\"CUQ\") was established, which governed the area surrounding Quebec City on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. Together with the CUQ, the Commission de transport de la Communaut\u00e9 urbaine de Qu\u00e9bec () (\"CTCUQ\") and the Bureau d'assainissement des eaux du Qu\u00e9bec M\u00e9tropolitain () (\"BAEQM\") were also established. Each of the three covered different groups of municipalities: In the years following the establishing of the CUQ, various changes occurred among the constituent municipalities:"}, {"context": " When the CUQ was created, the remaining territory of Quebec County was not affected, which included unorganized territory and the municipalities of Lac-Delage, Lac-\u00c9douard, Saint-Dunstan-du-Lac-Beauport, Saint-Gabriel-de-Valcartier and Stoneham-et-Tewkesbury. In 1981, they were divided between the new regional county municipalities of Le Haut-Saint-Maurice and La Jacques-Cartier. The CUQ was governed by its Council, which consisted of the mayor of each constituent municipality. It had a chairman and a vice-chairman, and, where a representative from Quebec City held one of the positions, the other had to be from one of the other municipalities."}, {"context": " It also had an executive committee, which had similar functions to a board of control found in Ontario. Its members were independently appointed for four-year terms by the constituent municipalities by sector: Effective January 1, 1994, the executive committee was abolished, and the chairman, 1st vice-chairman and 2nd vice-chairman of the Council were declared to be the Mayor of Quebec, a representative from Beauport, Charlesbourg or Sainte-Foy, and a representative from the remaining municipalities (in any order).  Effective January 1, 2002, the CUQ, together with its constituent municipalities, were amalgamated to form the Ville de Qu\u00e9bec, which subsequently became part of the new Communaut\u00e9 m\u00e9tropolitaine de Qu\u00e9bec."}]}, {"title": "Communaute\u0301 urbaine du Grand Reims", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communaut\u00e9 urbaine du Grand Reims is the \"communaut\u00e9 urbaine\", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Reims. It is located in the Marne department, in the Grand Est region, northeastern France. It was created in January 2017 by the merger of the previous \"communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration Reims M\u00e9tropole\" with the \"communaut\u00e9s de communes\" Beine-Bourgogne, Champagne Vesle, Nord Champenois, Fismes Ardre et Vesle, Vall\u00e9e de la Suippe, Rives de la Suippe, Vesle et Coteaux de la Montagne de Reims and 18 other communes. Its population was 299,054 in 2014, of which 186,971 in Reims proper.  The communaut\u00e9 urbaine consists of the following 143 communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communauto", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communauto is a company based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, that operates a carsharing service in seven cities in Ontario: Waterloo, Hamilton, London, Guelph, Kingston, Ottawa and Toronto - with their \"Flex\" service, four cities in Quebec: Montreal, Quebec City, Gatineau and Sherbrooke, in Edmonton, Halifax and in Paris, France. The company has partnerships with VRTUCAR in Ottawa and CarShare Atlantic in Halifax, which allows customers to access cars in any city. Communauto also acquired Mobizen, Paris carsharing company, in 2012. As of March 2018 it had 40,000 users who shared a fleet of approximately 2,000 vehicles, station-based and free-floating. The users-per-vehicle ratio can rise in winter to 20 users per vehicle and drops to about 15 users per vehicle in summer.  Founded in Quebec City in 1994 by Beno\u00eet Robert, its current CEO. Cycling advocate and environmentalist Claire Morissette (1950\u20132007) played a major role in its evolution starting in 1995, when Communauto established itself in Montreal as a private company. The company goal is to provide a convenient and economical alternative to owning a car. The impact of carsharing in Quebec was evaluated in a study from Communauto and conducted by Tecsult Inc. in 2006."}]}, {"title": "Communay", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communay is a commune in the Rh\u00f4ne department in eastern France. It is around 15\u00a0km south of the centre of Lyon."}]}, {"title": "Commune", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A commune (the French word appearing in the 12th century from Medieval Latin \"communia\", meaning a large gathering of people sharing a common life; from Latin \"communis\", things held in common) is an intentional community of people living together, sharing common interests, often having common values and beliefs, as well as shared property, possessions, resources, and, in some communes, work, income or assets. In addition to the communal economy, consensus decision-making, non-hierarchical structures and ecological living have become important core principles for many communes. There are many contemporary intentional communities all over the world, a list of which can be found at the Fellowship for Intentional Community (FIC). For the usually larger-scale, political entities in communist political theory, see socialist communes, which are similar but distinct social organizations."}, {"context": " Benjamin Zablocki categorized communities this way: Many communal ventures encompass more than one of these categorizations. Some communes, such as the ashrams of the Vedanta Society or the Theosophical commune Lomaland, formed around spiritual leaders, while others formed around political ideologies. For others, the \"glue\" is simply the desire for a more shared, sociable lifestyle. The central characteristics of communes, or core principles that define communes, have been expressed in various forms over the years. Before 1840 such communities were known as \"communist and socialist settlements\"; by 1860, they were also called \"communitarian\" and by around 1920 the term \"intentional community\" had been added to the vernacular of some theorists. The term \"communitarian\" was invented by the Suffolk-born radical John Goodwyn Barmby, subsequently a Unitarian minister."}, {"context": " At the start of the 1970s, \"The New Communes\" author Ron E. Roberts classified communes as a subclass of a larger category of Utopias. He listed three main characteristics. Communes of this period tended to develop their own characteristics of theory though, so while many strived for variously expressed forms of egalitarianism Roberts' list should never be read as typical. Roberts' three listed items were: first, egalitarianism \u2013 that communes specifically rejected hierarchy or graduations of social status as being necessary to social order. Second, human scale \u2013 that members of some communes saw the scale of society as it was then organized as being too industrialized (or factory sized) and therefore unsympathetic to human dimensions. And third, that communes were consciously anti-bureaucratic."}, {"context": " Twenty five years later, Dr. Bill Metcalf, in his edited book \"Shared Visions, Shared Lives\" defined communes as having the following core principles: the importance of the group as opposed to the nuclear family unit, a \"common purse\", a collective household, group decision making in general and intimate affairs. Sharing everyday life and facilities, a commune is an idealized form of family, being a new sort of \"primary group\" (generally with fewer than 20 people although again there are outstanding examples of much larger communes or communes that experienced episodes with much larger populations). Commune members have emotional bonds to the whole group rather than to any sub-group, and the commune is experienced with emotions which go beyond just social collectivity."}, {"context": " With the simple definition of a commune as an intentional community with 100% income sharing, the online directory of the Fellowship for Intentional Community (FIC) lists 186 communes worldwide (17 August 2011). Some of these are religious institutions such as abbeys and monasteries. Others are based in anthroposophic philosophy, including Camphill villages that provide support for the education, employment, and daily lives of adults and children with developmental disabilities, mental health problems or other special needs. Many communes are part of the New Age movement."}, {"context": " Many cultures naturally practice communal or tribal living, and would not designate their way of life as a planned 'commune' per se, though their living situation may have many characteristics of a commune. In Germany, a large number of the intentional communities define themselves as communes and there is a network of political communes called \"Kommuja\" with about 30 member groups (May 2009). Germany has a long tradition of intentional communities going back to the groups inspired by the principles of \"Lebensreform\" in the 19th century. Later, about 100 intentional communities were started in the Weimar Republic after World War I, many had a communal economy. In the 1960s, there was a resurgence of communities calling themselves communes, starting with the Kommune 1 in Berlin, followed by Kommune 2 (also Berlin) and Kommune 3 in Wolfsburg."}, {"context": " In the German commune book, \"Das KommuneBuch\", communes are defined by Elisabeth Vo\u00df as communities which: Kibbutzim in Israel, (sing., kibbutz) are examples of officially organized communes, the first of which were based on agriculture. Today, there are dozens of urban communes growing in the cities of Israel, often called urban kibbutzim. The urban kibbutzim are smaller and more anarchist. Most of the urban communes in Israel emphasize social change, education, and local involvement in the cities where they live. Some of the urban communes have members who are graduates of zionist-socialist youth movements, like HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed, HaMahanot HaOlim and Hashomer Hatsair."}, {"context": " In 1831 John Vandeleur (a landlord) established a commune on his Ralahine Estate at Newmarket-on-Fergus, Co. Clare. Vandeleur asked Edward Thomas Craig, an English socialist, to formulate rules and regulations for the commune. It was set up with a population of 22 adult single men, 7 married men and their 7 wives, 5 single women, 4 orphan boys and 5 children under the age of 9 years. No money was employed, only credit notes which could be used in the commune shop. All occupants were committed to a life with no alcohol, tobacco, snuff or gambling. All were required to work for 12 hours a day during the summer and from dawn to dusk in winter. The social experiment prospered for a time and 29 new members joined. However, in 1833 the experiment collapsed due to the gambling debts of John Vandeleur. The members of the commune met for the last time on 23 November 1833 and placed on record a declaration of \"the contentment, peace and happiness they had experienced for two years under the arrangements introduced by Mr. Vandeleur and Mr. Craig and which through no fault of the Association was now at an end\"."}, {"context": " In imperial Russia, the vast majority of Russian peasants held their land in communal ownership within a \"mir\" community, which acted as a village government and a cooperative. The very widespread and influential pre-Soviet Russian tradition of Monastic communities of both sexes could also be considered a form of communal living. After the end of Communism in Russia, monastic communities have again become more common, populous and, to a lesser degree, more influential in Russian society. Various patterns of Russian behavior\u2014toloka (\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u043a\u0430), pomochi (\u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0447\u0438), artel' (\u0430\u0440\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c)\u2014are also based on Communal (\"\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435\") traditions."}, {"context": " A 19th century advocate and practitioner of communal living was the utopian socialist John Goodwyn Barmby, who founded a Communist Church before becoming a Unitarian minister. The UK today has several communes or intentional communities, increasing since the New Towns Act 1946 to recuperate a lost sense of community at the centralization of population in Post-War New Towns such as Crawley or Corby. The Simon Community in London is an example of social cooperation, made to ease homelessness within London. It provides food and religion and is staffed by homeless people and volunteers. Mildly nomadic, they run street \"caf\u00e9s\" which distribute food to their known members and to the general public.The Bruderhof has three locations in the UK and follows the example of the earliest Christians in the Book of Acts by living in community and sharing all things in common. In Glandwr, near Crymych, Pembrokeshire, a co-op called Lammas Ecovillage focuses on planning and sustainable development. Granted planning permission by the Welsh Government in 2009, it has since created 9 holdings and is a central communal hub for its community. In Scotland, the Findhorn Foundation founded by Peter and Eileen Caddy and Dorothy Maclean in 1962 is prominent for its educational centre and experimental architectural community project based at The Park, in Moray, Scotland, near the village of Findhorn."}, {"context": " <nowiki> </nowiki>The Findhorn Ecovillage community at The Park, Findhorn, a village in Moray, Scotland, and at Cluny Hill in Forres, now houses more than 400 people. There is a long history of communes in America (see this short discussion of Utopian communities) which led to the rise in the communes of the hippie movement\u2014the \"back-to-the-land\" ventures of the 1960s and 1970s . One commune that played a large role in the hippie movement was Kaliflower, a utopian living cooperative that existed in San Francisco between 1967 and 1973 built on values of free love and anti-capitalism."}, {"context": " Andrew Jacobs of \"The New York Times\" wrote that \"after decades of contraction, the American commune movement has been expanding since the mid-1990s, spurred by the growth of settlements that seek to marry the utopian-minded commune of the 1960s with the American predilection for privacy and capital appreciation.\" (See Intentional community). The Fellowship for Intentional Community (FIC) is the best source for listings of and more information about communes in the United States. While many American communes are short lived, some have been in operation for over 50 years. The Bruderhof was established in the US in 1954, Twin Oaks in 1967 and Koinonia Farm in 1942. Twin Oaks is a rare example of a non-religious commune surviving for longer than 30 years."}, {"context": " , the Venezuelan state has initiated the construction of almost 200 \"socialist communes\" which are billed as autonomous and independent from the government. The communes purportedly have their own \"productive gardens\" that grow their own vegetables as a method of self-supply. The communes also make independent decisions in regards to administration and the use of funding. The idea has been denounced as an attempt to undermine elected local governments, since the central government could shift its funding away from these in favor of communes, which are overseen by the federal Ministry of Communes and Social Protection."}]}, {"title": "Commune (Vietnam)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune (; Ch\u1eef n\u00f4m: \u793e), a type of third tier subdivision of Vietnam is divided into 11,162 units along with ward and township have equal status. The communes are subordinate to city, town or district as the Third Tier unit. Certain small villages are not officially regarded as administrative communes. As of December 31, 2008, Vietnam had 9,111 communes. Thanh Ho\u00e1 Province contained the highest number of communes (586) amongst all province-level administrative units, followed by Ngh\u1ec7 An Province with 436 and Hanoi with 408. \u0110\u00e0 N\u1eb5ng, with only 11 communes, contained the fewest. Counted together, the ten province-level administrative units containing the most communes\u2014namely, Thanh Ho\u00e1 (586), Ngh\u1ec7 An (436), Hanoi (408), Th\u00e1i B\u00ecnh (267), Ph\u00fa Th\u1ecd (251), H\u00e0 T\u0129nh (238), H\u1ea3i D\u01b0\u01a1ng (234), Qu\u1ea3ng Nam (210), B\u1eafc Giang (207), and L\u1ea1ng S\u01a1n (207)\u2014contain one-third of all the communes in Vietnam. Three of these are located in the Red River Delta region, three more in the \u0110\u00f4ng B\u1eafc (Northeast) region, three in the B\u1eafc Trung B\u1ed9 (North Central Coast) region, and one in the Nam Trung B\u1ed9 (South Central Coast) region."}, {"context": " According to data extracted from General Statistics Office of Vietnam, there are 11164 third-level (commune-level) administrative subdivision. As of 2018 February, third-level administrative subdivision of Vietnam is 11162. In 1957, South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem launched a counter-insurgency project known as Strategic Hamlet Program, in order to isolate the rural Vietnamese from contact with and influence by the communist National Liberation Front (NLF). A number of \"fortified villages\", called \"joint families\" (), were created throughout South Vietnam, consisting of villages that had been consolidated and reshaped to create a defensible perimeter. The peasants themselves would be given weapons and trained in self-defense. Several problems, including corruption, unnecessary amounts of forced relocation, and poor execution caused the program to backfire drastically, and ultimately led to a decrease in support for Diem's regime and an increase in sympathy for Communist efforts."}]}, {"title": "Commune (album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune is the second studio album by Swedish experimental fusion group Goat. It was released worldwide on 22 September 2014 by Rocket Recordings, in North America on 23 September by Sub Pop, and in Scandinavia on 24 September by Stranded Records. The group also embarked on a small promotional tour across Europe in support of the album, which began on September 19 in Copenhagen, Denmark and ended on October 3 at the Roundhouse in London, England. \"Commune\" received generally favorable reviews, with a score of 76/100 on Metacritic. The album was listed on several publications' best albums of 2014 lists."}]}, {"title": "Commune (card game)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune is a bluffing-based card game that requires knowledge of poker. It is best played in a large group of people, and does not require use of a table or playing surface. Gameplay is similar to Liar's dice or Liar's poker. The object of Commune is to be the last player remaining in the game. Players are removed from the game when they have received three penalties. Penalties are gathered through making invalid bids or calling valid bids. At the beginning of each hand, each player is dealt one card more than the number of penalties they have. For example, a player with one penalty is dealt two cards. Players may look at their own cards, but must refrain from telling other players information about their hand. Twos are wild cards and may take on any value."}, {"context": " Beginning with the player who last received a penalty, bidding proceeds clockwise. A bid is a poker hand that the bidder believes exists in the combined cards of all the players, known as the commune. Each successive bid must have a higher value than the previous, with the allowed hands being as follows: Note that flushes are not hands in Commune, because bidding gives no information about the suits of the cards in the commune. Also note that no bid may involve a two, for example, no player may bid \"twos over queens\" or \"straight to six\"."}, {"context": " If a player believes that the previous bid is invalid, and does not exist in the commune, then he may announce so by declaring \"call\". When this happens, players reveal their cards and the validity of the bid is determined. If the bid \"was\" valid, the player who \"called\" receives a penalty. Otherwise, the bidder receives a penalty. The hand is then over and a new hand begins. If a player receives three penalties then they are out. However, as players accrue more penalties, they receive more cards each hand and will thus have more information about the game, making it harder to force further penalties on them. Eventually, though, all players will receive their third penalty and drop out of the game. When only one player is left, that player is the winner."}, {"context": " A common variation when playing with two to four players is to play with up to 5 penalties, allowing the game to go on longer and for bigger hands to be bid. Another variation is that each player begins with 3 cards, and each penalty decreases the number of cards they are dealt. This makes for less drastic drops in the number of cards when a player drops out, but makes it easier for a player to lose as soon as they receive a few penalties. Some variations allow flushes to be bid, as long as the bidder can name every rank in the flush, making it a rather rare bid. This also means that straight flushes can be bid, above four of a kinds but below five of a kinds. A final variation allows the bidding of hands larger than five cards: six of a kind, seven of a kind, and eight of a kind."}]}, {"title": "Commune (film)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune is a 2005 documentary film by Jonathan Berman. The film is about an intentional community located in Siskiyou County, California called Black Bear Ranch and features narration by Peter Coyote who himself once resided at Black Bear. \"Commune\" was well received with a score of 95% fresh at Rotten Tomatoes. Metacritic lists \"Commune\" with a score of 74 out of 100. Maitland McDonagh of \"TV Guide\" pronounced it \"A close examination of a quintessential '60s phenomenon that speaks volumes about the attitudes and experiences that shaped the decade ... captivating. Andrew O'Hehir of Salon.com said \"Amid the dozens of documentaries made about various aspects of '60s society and culture, \"Commune\" stands out for its ambiguity, honesty and sheer human clarity ... an extraordinary collage.\""}, {"context": " A \"New York Times\" review, titled \"Just a Hardy Bunch of Settlers Who Left America and Moved to California\", described the commune veterans: \"However weatherbeaten they appear, they still have a light in their eyes, and they exude the hardy spirit of pioneers who are older and wiser but unbowed,\" adding that they look back with \"pride, amusement, and sadness.\" A review in the \"New York Sun\", provides more specifics on a fundraising technique one former member called \"emotional blackmail,\" claiming that the $22,000 initial land purchase was acquired by pitching rock musicians that:  The \"San Francisco Chronicle\", \"The Village Voice\", and \"Variety\" all gave the film positive reviews."}]}, {"title": "Commune (model of government)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune is a model of government that is generally advocated by communists, revolutionary socialists, and anarchists. The model is often characterized as being a local and transparent organization composed of delegates bound by mandates. These delegates would be recallable at any time from their positions. Proponents view the right of recall as a particularly important safeguard against corruption and unresponsiveness among the representatives. Almost universally, socialists, communists, and anarchists have seen the Commune as a model for the liberated society that will come after the masses are liberated from capitalism, a society based on participatory democracy from the grass roots up."}, {"context": " Marx and Engels, Bakunin, and later Lenin and Trotsky gained major theoretical lessons (in particular as regards the \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" and the \"withering away of the state\") from the limited experience of the Paris Commune. Nonetheless, these very advocates provided critiques of the commune. Marx found it aggravating that the Communards pooled all their resources into first organizing democratic elections rather than gathering their forces and attacking Versailles in a timely fashion. Many Marxists, based on their interpretation of the historical evidence and on Marx's writings on the subject, believe that the Communards were too \"soft\" on the non-proletarian elements in their midst."}, {"context": " But the idea of the commune as a libertarian social organization has persisted within revolutionary theory. Kropotkin criticized modern representative democracy as merely being an instrument for the ruling class, and argued that a new society would have to be organized on entirely different principles which involved every individual more directly. He treats the nation state as a capitalist territorial organization which imposes itself over many communities through the spectacle of participation which elections deceptively provide. Communes on the other hand are expected to endow communities with autonomy from external powers and offer each person within them a part in decision-making processes, through communal assemblies and easily revocable delegates."}, {"context": " Karl Marx, in his pamphlet \"The Civil War in France\" (1871), written during the Commune, advocated the Commune's achievements, and described it as the prototype for a revolutionary government of the future, 'the form at last discovered' for the emancipation of the proletariat. Thus in Marxist theory, the commune is a form of political organization adopted during the first (or lower) phase of communism, socialism. Communes are proposed as the proletarian counterpart to bourgeois political forms such as parliaments. In his pamphlet, Marx explains the purpose and function of the commune during the period that he termed the dictatorship of the proletariat:"}, {"context": " Marx based these ideas on the example of the Paris Commune, which he described in \"The Civil War in France\": In addition to local governance, the communes were to play a central role in the national government: Bakunin eventually diverged sharply both personally and ideologically from Marx and such a divergence is evident in his thought. Bakunin never advocated a dictatorship of the proletariat, but instead a collectivism based on communes and cooperative worker's associations allied together into a decentralized and stateless federation. In his \"Revolutionary Catechism\" he laid down the principles on which he believed a free, anarchist society should be founded upon. This included the political organization of society into communes:"}, {"context": " The autonomous commune is furthermore based upon the complete liberty of the individual and dedicated to its realization. Bakunin's anarchist commune is not organized into a dictatorship of the proletariat but a loose, yet cohesive federation that attempts to achieve the aims of the actively revolutionary class as a whole. Jeff Shantz points out in his book Constructive Anarchy: Building Infrastructures of Resistance, in hopes of mass communes one day being a reality, that \"Mini-communes and squats exist all over the world, but comprise only a marginal pattern of social organization in relation to society at large. However, many of them provide a self-conscious example of how a socialist society would function, even if only on a microsociological level. As they are, socialist mini-communes are, along with workers' associations, the germs for the development of mass, socially complex communist communes.\". This hypothetical is an example of what organizations like workers-organizations could lead to if brought to sufficient scale. In the case that this gradual progression is true, it would have implications both on the way that workers-organizations and their like are perceived both by those who hope for mass communes to be a reality and those who do not. For those who support communes, it would motivate them at a policy-level to encourage workers-organizations, for those who oppose communes, it would encourage them to abolish workers-organizations at every opportunity. The idea that workers-organizations gradually progress into communes, thus brings into question whether or not workers-organizations are fundamentally healthy or destructive in their long-term function. It is important to note at this point, that some do believe that workers-organizations are part of an inevitable progress towards mass-communes."}]}, {"title": "Commune FC", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune Football Club is a Burkinab\u00e9 football club based in Ouagadougou and founded in 1977. They play their home games at the Stade du 4-Ao\u00fbt."}]}, {"title": "Commune I (Niamey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune I (Niamey), also known as Niamey I, is an urban commune in Niger. It is a commune of the capital city of Niamey."}]}, {"title": "Commune II (Niamey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune II (Niamey), also known as Niamey II, is an urban commune in Niger. It is a commune of the capital city of Niamey."}]}, {"title": "Commune III (Niamey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune III (Niamey), also known as Niamey III, is an urban commune in Niger. It is a commune of the capital city of Niamey."}]}, {"title": "Commune IV (Niamey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune IV (Niamey), also known as Niamey IV, is an urban commune in Niger. It is a commune of the capital city of Niamey. The commune is served by Niamey railway station and Niamey International Airport."}]}, {"title": "Commune V (Niamey)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune V (Niamey), also known as Niamey V, is an urban commune in Niger. It is a commune of the capital city of Niamey. It is located in the south-western shore of the Niger River."}]}, {"title": "Commune Veneciarum", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commune Veneciarum (Latin for \"Community of Venice\") is the title with which the government of the city of Venice and its Republic was designated from 1143. The municipality, similar to other medieval municipalities, was based on the popular power of the assembly, called Concio in Venice. It represented the patriciate of the city with a system of assemblies including the Great Council, Minor Council, Senate and the Council of Forty. Unlike other Italian cities, Venice retained some vestiges of their previous institution of the monarchy embodied by the Doge for setting bounds for power that such assemblies were developing. The leading groups of most the towns gathered at the time around the core of the ancient patrician families, creating a new merchant aristocracy with the Serrata del Maggior Consiglio of 1297 and actually took over the power and ousting the popular assembly.  In the name of the Commune, it continued to operate the highest representative body of the state's sovereignty \u2013 including the Doge, the Minor Council and heads of the Forty \u2013 until 1423. At this time, the abolition of the Concione ended the last residue of municipal institutions and the supreme body took the name of Serenissima Signoria."}]}, {"title": "Commune by the Great Wall", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commune by the Great Wall (Chinese: \u957f\u57ce\u811a\u4e0b\u7684\u516c\u793e) is a SOHO China-managed boutique hotel, in Beijing, China. The Commune by the Great Wall is near the Badaling section of the Great Wall. The Commune consists of private villas designed by twelve Asian architects. Its clubhouse and villas are in a valley totaling eight square kilometers. It also houses corporate functions, weddings, film shoots, and fashion shows. Its furniture and interior decoration were designed by Serge Mouille, Philippe Starck, Karim Rashid, Matthew Hilton, Marc Newson, and Michael Young.  The hotel's architecture was exhibited at La Biennale di Venezia in 2002 and bestowed a special prize. Zhang Xin, the project's creator and investor, was recognized for her \u201cbold personal initiative.\u201d Centre Pompidou, in Paris, houses the exhibited model, as its first permanent collection from China."}]}, {"title": "Commune council", "paragraphs": [{"context": " There are 1,646 Communes/Sangkats in Cambodia. Each Commune Council () is composed of 5 to 11 members depending on demography and geography, elected through a proportional system where nationally registered political parties can compete by presenting a list of candidates of at least twice the number of seats in each Commune. There are no independent candidates. Commune councillors vote on their constituents' behalf in Senate elections. As such, a victory in communal elections would all but guarantee a majority in the Senate.  There are currently 11,572 councillors from 1,646 communes."}]}, {"title": "Commune nouvelle d'Arrou", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune nouvelle d'Arrou is a commune in the department of Eure-et-Loir, north-central France. The municipality was established on 1 January 2017 by merger of the former communes of Arrou (the seat), Boisgasson, Ch\u00e2tillon-en-Dunois, Courtalain, Langey and Saint-Pellerin."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Antioch", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commune of Antioch was a medieval commune in the Principality of Antioch. It was formed in 1194 in the courthouse of the Church of Saint Peter by a congregation of citizens headed by the Latin patriarch, Radulph II. The prince, Bohemond III, was at the time imprisoned by Leo II of Armenia, and the citizens had driven out the Armenians who came to occupy the city. The commune, with its elected members, took over the administration. To legalize their position, they quickly paid homage to Bohemond III's eldest son and regent, Raymond, who gave them a formal recognition.  Despite the Latin Church's sympathy for the commune, it is more likely that the idea came from the Genoese and Pisan merchants, who were anxious about the future of their trade under an Armenian domination; the Italians were much more familiar with communes than the French in any case. It was the Greeks, however, who soon took a leading role."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bisoro", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bisoro is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at the village Bisoro."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bubanza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Bubanza is a commune of Bubanza Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Bubanza city. Bubanza (capital) Bihembe Butega Buvyuko Cabire Kabwitika Karonge Kuwintaba Mitakataka Nyabugoye Nyarusagare"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bugabira", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bugabira is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Bugabira."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buganda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Buganda is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Buganda."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bugendana", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bugendana is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Bugendana. In 2007, DGHER electrified two rural villages in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bugenyuzi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bugenyuzi is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Bugenyuzi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buhiga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Buhiga is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Buhiga."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buhinyuza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Buhinyuza is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Buhinyuza."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bukemba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bukemba is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Bukemba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bukeye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bukeye is a commune of Muramvya Province in central-western Burundi. The capital lies at Bukeye."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bukinanyana", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bukinanyana is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Bukinanyana."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bukirasazi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bukirasazi is a southern commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Bukirasazi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Burambi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Burambi is a commune of Rumonge Province in southwestern Burundi. The capital of the commune is Burambi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buraza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Buraza is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Buraza."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bururi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bururi is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Bururi. In 2007, DGHER electrified one rural village in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Busiga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Busiga is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Busiga. Commune of Marangara"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Busoni", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Busoni is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital is at Busoni."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Butaganzwa", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Butaganzwa is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Butaganzwa. In 2007, DGHER electrified two rural villages in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Butezi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Butezi is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Butezi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Butihinda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Butihinda is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Butihinda."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buyengero", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Buyengero is a commune of Rumonge Province in southwestern Burundi. The capital is Buyengero."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Buyenzi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Buyenzi is a commune of Bujumbura Mairie Province in western Burundi. The capital lies at Buyenzi. Buyenzi commune has 25 horizontal streets. Each street has houses facing each other and a road in the middle. The majority of the population in Buyenzi are Muslim. It is home to the second largest mosque in Burundi; Masjid Jumuah situated on 12th and 13th streets."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bwambarangwe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bwambarangwe is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Bwambarangwe."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Bweru", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Bweru is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Bweru."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Cankuzo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Cankuzo is a commune of Cankuzo Province in north-eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Cankuzo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Cendajuru", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Cendajuru is a commune of Cankuzo Province in north-eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Cendajuru."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gahombo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gahombo is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Gahombo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gashikanwa", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gashikanwa is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Gashikanwa."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gashoho", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gashoho is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Gashoho."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gasorwe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gasorwe is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Gasorwe."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gatara", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gatara is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Gatara."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gihanga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Gihanga is a commune of Bubanza Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Gihanga city. Gihanga (capital) Buramata Gihungwe Kagwena Mpanda Mukindu Murira Muyange Ninga Nyeshanga Rushakashaka"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Giharo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Giharo is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Giharo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Giheta", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Giheta is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Giheta."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gihogazi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gihogazi is a rural commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital is Gihogazi. According to the 2008 census, Gihogazi had a total population of 67,627, of which 48% was male, and a population density of 351 people per km\u00b2. The total area of the commune amounts to . It consists of the following 21 \"collines\":"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gisagara", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gisagara is a commune of Cankuzo Province in north-eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Gisagara."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gishubi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gishubi is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Gishubi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gisozi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gisozi is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Gisozi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gisuru", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gisuru is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Gisuru."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gitanga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gitanga is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Gitanga."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gitaramuka", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gitaramuka is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Gitaramuka."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gitega", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gitega is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Gitega. In 2007, DGHER electrified one rural village in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Giteranyi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Giteranyi is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Giteranyi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Gitobe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Gitobe is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Gitobe."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Itaba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune Itaba is one of 11 municipalities in the province of Gitega, Burundi. It is surrounded in the north by the town Gitega, to the south by Rutana Province, to the west by the municipalities Bukirasazi and Makebuko, to the east by Rutana and Ruyigi provinces. It covers an area of , equal tp 8.6% of the entire province of Gitega () and 0.6% of the whole country (). The climate is tropical and is moderated by altitude. Under normal conditions, the dry season is from three to four months from June to September. In general, the climate is mild with regular and abundant rainfall. The annual average temperature is 19.7\u00a0\u00b0C (average maximum 25.5\u00a0\u00b0C, minimum average 13.8\u00a0\u00b0C). Generally, temperatures do not experience significant changes in year."}, {"context": " The municipality hass 54,793 inhabitants living in 10,759 households, with a density average of 322 inhabitants / km2, 27% lower than the density of the Gitega province whose density is 349 inhabitants per km2 on average. Zones and administrative divisions 5.Kanyinya 6.Karemba 7.Macu 8.Mutanga 9.Nkima The Itaba municipality belongs to two natural regions: Kirimiro and Buyogoma. Its soil, its population, its diverse climate and hydrography give it a framework favorable for intensive and varied agriculture. Agriculture covers 90% of the population. It produces food crops, industrial and a little less of vegetable crops and fruit. The production is traditional, with small family farms land (40 acres per household), rudimentary tools, family labor and production mainly for home consumption. Crops are associated that is to say, they practice mixed farming on the same field up to four crops: example: beans, corn, taro, banana."}, {"context": " The municipality has three seasons: A: September to February, favorable especially for corn,- B: that is to say, from February to July, with good harvest of beans, and season C in bogs. From May to December: one sows beans, corn, sweet potato. This counts for all the regions in Burundi. Agriculture of the Itaba municipality is based mainly on the work of women. They plow, sow, weed, harvest and transport crops. The men work mainly for some special crops destined for immediate cash-yielding, livestock and making banana beer."}, {"context": " Nevertheless, this situation is going to change soon. With the government committed to the mechanization of the agriculture, machinery will replace the traditional hoe leaving a space to modern life-style and market-oriented agricultural production. The Itaba Municipality has a natural environment with abundant natural pastures that can yet be improved. People can also count on the tradition that has seen the municipality of Itaba emerging as one of the most important breeding sites of Burundi throughout the ages."}, {"context": " Livestock that has long been seen as a prestigious matter in the municipality of Itaba and in the whole province of Gitega, as it mainly conferred a social status, is now embracing a new era: Zero-grazing, Green-Itaba Municipality, Market-oriented breeding. The livestock is made essentially of: cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry. Traditionally, cows, goats, sheep, were driven to the mountain pastures and valleys for grazing. Very few people made a permanent stall. But as it has been said above, many breeders have now made the politics of zero-grazing theirs, and the results are rather promising: milk production has seen an exponential production that could lead to an implementation of a milk-processing plant in the commune in the foreseeable future.  Schools and universities:"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kabarore", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kabarore is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Kabarore. In 2007, DGHER electrified three rural villages in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kayanza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kayanza is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Kayanza."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kayogoro", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kayogoro is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Kayogoro."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kayokwe", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kayokwe is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Kayokwe."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kibago", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kibago is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Kibago."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kigamba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kigamba is a commune of Cankuzo Province in north-eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Kigamba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kiganda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kiganda is a commune of Muramvya Province in central-western Burundi. The capital lies at Kiganda. In 2007, DGHER electrified one rural village in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kinama", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kinama is a commune of Bujumbura in northwest Burundi. The capital is at Kinama, Bujumbura."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kinyinya", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kinyinya is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Kinyinya."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kiremba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kiremba is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Kiremba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Kirundo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Kirundo is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Kirundo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mabanda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mabanda is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Mabanda."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mabayi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mabayi is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Mabayi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Makamba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Makamba is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Makamba. In 2007, DGHER electrified one rural village in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Makebuko", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Makebuko is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Makebuko."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Marangara", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Marangara is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Marangara. Commune of Busiga"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Matana", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Matana is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Matana. \u2192Mugano, Gatabo, Muzi, kabingo.<were skipped before maybe the researcher didn't visit them. they are subdivisions of matana commune"}]}, {"title": "Commune of Matongo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Matongo is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Matongo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mbuye", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mbuye is a commune of Muramvya Province in central-western Burundi. The capital lies at Mbuye."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mishiha", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mishiha is a commune of Cankuzo Province in north-eastern Burundi. The capital is in Mishiha."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mpanda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Mpanda is a commune of Bubanza Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Mpanda city."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mpinga-Kayove", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Mpinga-Kayove is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Mpinga-Kayove."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mubimbi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Mubimbi is a commune of Bujumbura Rural Province in Burundi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mugamba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mugamba is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Mugamba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mugina", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mugina is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Mugina. In 2007, DGHER electrified two rural villages in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Muhanga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Muhanga is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Muhanga. In 2007, DGHER electrified one rural village in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Muramvya", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Muramvya is a commune of the Muramvya Province in central-western Burundi. The capital lies at Muramvya."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Muruta", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Muruta is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Muruta."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Murwi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Murwi is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Murwi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Musigati", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Musigati is a commune of Bubanza Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Musigati city."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Musongati", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Musongati is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Musongati."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mutaho", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mutaho is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Mutaho."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mutumba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mutumba is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Mutumba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Muyinga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Muyinga is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Muyinga."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mwakiro", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mwakiro is a commune of Muyinga Province in northeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Mwakiro."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Mwumba", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Mwumba is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Mwumba."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ndava", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ndava is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Ndava."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ngozi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ngozi is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Ngozi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ntega", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ntega is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Ntega."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyabihanga", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyabihanga is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Nyabihanga."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyabikere", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyabikere is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Nyabikere."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyabitsinda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyabitsinda is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Nyabitsinda."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyamurenza", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyamurenza is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Nyamurenza."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyanrusange", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyarusange is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Nyanrusange."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Nyanza-Lac", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Nyanza-Lac is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Nyanza-Lac."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rango", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rango is a commune of Kayanza Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Rango."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rome", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commune of Rome () was established in 1144 after a rebellion led by Giordano Pierleoni. Pierleoni led a people's revolt due to the increasing powers of the Pope and the entrenched powers of the nobility. The goal of the rebellion was to organize the government of Rome in a similar fashion to that of the previous Roman Republic. Pierleoni was named the \"first Patrician of the Roman Commune\", but was deposed in 1145. In a pattern that was to become familiar in the communal struggles of Guelfs and Ghibellines, the commune declared allegiance to the more distant power, the Holy Roman Emperor, and initiated negotiations with newly elected Pope Lucius II. The commune wanted him to renounce temporal power and take up an office with the duties of a priest. Lucius gathered a force and assaulted Rome, but the republican defenders repulsed his army and Lucius died from injuries received from a stone that hit his head."}, {"context": " Lucius's successor, Pope Eugene III, could not be consecrated in the city due to the resistance. However, he eventually came to an agreement with the civil authority that had deposed Pierleoni, and returned to Rome on Christmas Day 1145. In March 1146 he again had to leave. He returned in 1148 and excommunicated Arnold of Brescia, a political theorist who had joined the commune and was its intellectual leader. The Pope lived in Tusculum beginning in 1149 and was not installed as pope in Rome until 1152. The existence of the Republic was precarious. Eugene's successor, Adrian IV, convinced Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to lead an army against the city. Arnold was arrested, tried, convicted, and hanged in 1155. His body was burnt and the ashes cast into the Tiber."}, {"context": " In 1188, shortly after his accession, Pope Clement III succeeded in allaying the half-century old conflict between the popes and the citizens of Rome with the \"Concord Pact.\" The Pact allowed citizens to elect magistrates with the power of war and peace. The Prefect was named by the Emperor and the Pope had sovereign rights over his territories. From 1191 to 1193, under a radical reduction of the number of senators to a single one, the city was ruled by a Benedetto called\" Carus homo\" (\"carissimo\") as \"summus senator\", and Rome had the first municipal statute.  After this, the city was again under papal control, although the civil government was never again directly in the hands of the higher nobles or the papacy."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rugazi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Rugazi is a commune of Bubanza Province in north-western Burundi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rugombo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rugombo is a commune of Cibitoke Province in north-western Burundi. The capital lies at Rugombo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ruhororo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ruhororo is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Ruhororo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rumonge", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Rumonge is a commune of Rumonge Province in southwestern Burundi. Its headquarters are at Rumonge, which is also the provincial capital. In 2007, DGHER electrified three rural villages in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rusaka", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rusaka is a commune of Mwaro Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Mwaro (Rusaka). An agricultural commune, in recent years forest development in the commune has resulted in arid soils in parts. In June 2003, FDD combatants killed three civilians and burned local government buildings and a cooperative in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rutana", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rutana is a commune of Rutana Province in southeastern Burundi. The capital lies at Rutana."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rutegama", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rutegama is a commune of Muramvya Province in central-western Burundi. The capital lies at Rutegama."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Rutovu", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Rutovu is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Rutovu."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ruyigi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ruyigi is a commune of Ruyigi Province in eastern Burundi. The capital lies at Ruyigi."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Ryansoro", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Ryansoro is a commune of Gitega Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Ryansoro."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Shombo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Shombo is a commune of Karuzi Province in central Burundi. The capital lies at Shombo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Songa", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Songa is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Songa."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Tangara", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Tangara is a commune of Ngozi Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Tangara. The Tangara Commune is known for quality coffee cultivation at elevations from 1,700-1,900 metres asl."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Vugizo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Vugizo is a commune of Makamba Province in southern Burundi. The capital lies at Vugizo."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Vumbi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Vumbi is a commune of Kirundo Province in northern Burundi. The capital lies at Vumbi. About 1500 Rwandan refugees were in Vumbi commune during the genocide."}]}, {"title": "Commune of Vyanda", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The commune of Vyanda is a commune of Bururi Province in south-western Burundi. The capital lies at Vyanda. It contains the Vyanda Forest Nature Reserve."}]}, {"title": "Commune of the Working People of Estonia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Commune of the Working People of Estonia (, initially '; or ETK\"') was an unrecognised government claiming the Bolshevik-occupied parts of Republic of Estonia as its territories during the Estonian War of Independence and the Russian Civil War. The Commune was established in Narva on 29 November 1918 with the support of the Red Army. It was chaired by Jaan Anvelt for the duration of its existence. Within areas of their control, the Commune closed churches, nationalised industry and the banks and outlawed representatives of the"}, {"context": " Provisional Government. The Communist offensive was initially successful and eventually reached as far as 34 kilometres from Tallinn. However, a counter-offensive begun on 7 January 1919 by the Estonian People's Force (\"Rahvav\u00e4gi\") under Commander-in-Chief Johan Laidoner eventually drove the Red Army out of Estonia, with international military aid primarily from the British Empire. The Commune was thus rendered defunct, claiming a government in exile in Pskov, then Luga and finally, from 17 May 1919, in Staraya Russa."}, {"context": " The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR) formally recognised the ETK on 7 December 1918 and remained the only government to do so. At that time, Soviet Russia was itself not internationally recognised. One of the first international treaties recognising Russia's Soviet government as legitimate was the Treaty of Tartu concluding the Estonian War of Independence in 1920. The regime instituted a reign of terror from November 1918 to January 1919. A considerable number of people were arrested in Tartu in December 1919 and a number of German estate owners were executed on the frozen river on January 9, 1919. Just before Tartu was seized, the communists executed clergymen and other prisoners in the basement of a town bank, among the victims were Bishop Platon, the priest Sergei Florinski and the pastor Traugott Hahn. Around 500 people were killed in total.  Soviet authorities executed most of the members during the Great Purge."}]}, {"title": "Commune-level subdivisions (Vietnam)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " In Vietnam, there are three kinds of third-level (commune-level) administrative subdivisions: the rural commune (), the commune-level town ()\uff0cand the ward (, literal meaning: urban subdistrict). In Vietnam a rural commune is referred to as a \"x\u00e3\" and urban communes are referred to as \"Th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n\", urban townships. However many communities, particularly large urban ones with provincial status, will be divided into wards which are known as \"ph\u01b0\u1eddng\". , there were a total of 9,111 communes in Vietnam excluding townships and wards. Each commune may consist of a number of towns and villages; but often wards and commune-level towns (mostly from urban districts) are divided into residential neighborhoods or wards which differ from rural communes."}, {"context": " , there were a total of 11,112 commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam including townships and wards. Thanh H\u00f3a Province has the highest number of communes in any province of Vietnam with a total of 637 commune-level subdivisions. During the second republic of the Republic of Vietnam, a communal school district chief would be appointed for each commune. They collaborate with other leaders including the police chiefs, treasurers of the communes, administrative officials, and civil service officials, and form \"communal councils\" . The council has a number of responsibilities, including monitoring health and education in the commune."}]}, {"title": "Commune-level town (Vietnam)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Commune-level town (; Ch\u1eef n\u00f4m: \u5e02\u93ae), commonly known as township or townlet, a type of third tier subdivision of Vietnam is divided into 11,162 units along with ward and commune have equal status. By virtue of Decree No. 42/2009/ND-CP, township are officially classified into Class-2, Class-3, Class-4 or Class-5. The townships can only subordinate to district as the Third Tier unit. The difference between a township and a commune is mainly related to their industrialization rate. Communes are dominated by the practice of agriculture (including farming, forestry, fishery, and so on), whereas townships generally have a more diversified economic base. Population density in townships is also higher than in communes. Other criteria, such as population (as opposed to density), revenue received from taxes, and land area are generally not taken into account. Townships often have higher budgets than communes, but many counter-examples exist.  The seat of government of a district is generally located in a township designated as a district capital ()\u2014as opposed to a commune\u2014except when the town's geographical location is not favorable. As of December 31, 2008, Vietnam had 617 commune-level towns. Thanh H\u00f3a Province with 30 commune-level towns is the most of all province-level administrative units, followed by Hanoi with 22 commune-level towns. Ninh Thu\u1eadn Province has only three commune-level towns and \u0110\u00e0 N\u1eb5ng has none."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Albania", "paragraphs": [{"context": " There are 373 Units of Local Governance (formerly \"Komuna\") in Albania. 23 villagest t\u00eb ngelura i p\u00ebrkasin bashkive: Sukth (6), Man\u00ebz (8), Kruj\u00eb (3) dhe Fush\u00eb-Kruj\u00eb (6). 19 villagest t\u00eb ngelura i p\u00ebrkasin bashkive: Shkodra (2), Vau i Dej\u00ebs (9), Koplik (3), Puka (2) dhe Fush\u00eb-Arr\u00ebza (3)."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Algeria", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The municipalities of Algeria (Arabic: \"baladiyah\" (singular); French: \"commune\") form the second level of administrative subdivisions of Algeria. As of 2002, there were 1,541 municipalities in the country. This list is a copy from the Statoids page named \"Municipalities of Algeria\". The population data is from June 25, 1998."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Angola", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communes of Angola () are administrative units in Angola after municipalities. The 163 municipalities of Angola are divided into communes. There are a total of 618 communes of Angola: Ambriz, Kakalo-Kahango, \u00cdcolo e Bengo, Cassoneca, Bela Vista, Tabi, Zala, Kikabo, Barra do Dande, Muxiluando, Kixico, Kanacassala, Gombe, Kicunzo, Kage, Mabubas, Caxito, Ucua, Piri, Kibaxe, S\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 das Matas, Kiaje, Paredes, Bula-Atumba, Pango-luquem, Kabiri, Bom Jesus, Catete, Calomboloca, Kazua, Muxima, Dembo Chio,"}, {"context": " Mumbondo, Kixinje Alda Lara, Asfalto, Babaera, Balombo, Benfica, Benguela, Bi\u00f3pio, Bocoio, Candumbo, Catumbela, Chigongo, Chikuma, Chila, Chindumbo, Chongor\u00f3i, Comp\u00e3o, Cote, Cubal, Cubal do Lumbo, Dombe Grande, Lobito Canata, Catumbela, Egito, Monte Belo, Passe, Caimbambo, Catengue, Baia Farta, Cupupa, Imbala, Quendo, Chiongoroi, Capupa, Bolongueira, Ganda, Babaera, Kasseque, Chicurnu, Ebanga Munhango, Caivera, Sachinemuna, Andulo, Belo Horizonte, Camb\u00e2ndua, Chicala, Chinguar, Chipeta, Chitembo,"}, {"context": " Chiuca, Chiva\u00falo, Dando, Gamba, Kachingues, Kaiei, Kalucinga, Kamakupa, Kangote, Kassumbe, Katabola, Kuemba, Kuito, Kunhinga, Kunje, Kutato, Kwanza, Luando, L\u00fabia, Malengue, Mumbu\u00e9, Mutumbo, Nharea, Ringoma, Sande, Soma Kwanza, Santo Ant\u00f3nio da Muinha, Trumba, Umpulo Miconje, Luali, Cabinda, Malembo, Tanto-Zinze, Landana, Massabi, Inhuca, Necuto, Belize Baixo Longa, Bondo, Chinguanja, Cuangar, Dirico, Kaiundo, Kalai, Kuchi, Kueio, Kuito Kuanavale, Kutato, Kutuile, Longa, Luengue, Luiana, Maue Aldeia Nova,"}, {"context": " Banga, Danje - ia - Menha, Dondo, Golungo Alto, Kaenda, Kakulo, Kamabatela, Kambondo, Kanhoca, Kiangombe, Kiculungo, Kilombo dos Dembos, Kissola, Luinga, Lucala, Massangano, Ma\u00faa, Ndalatando, Quiage, Quibaxe, S\u00e3o Pedro da Kilemba, Samba Caj\u00fa, Samba Lukala, Tango, Zenza do Itombe, Bindo, Bolongongo, Cariamba, Terreiro, Quiquemba, Cacongo, Cerca, Camome, Cavunga, Kiluanje Assango, Botera, Dumbi, Ebo, Gabela, Gangula, Kabuta, Kalulo, Kapolo, Kariango, Kassanje, Kassongue, Kibala, Kienha, Kikombo, Kilenda,"}, {"context": " Kissanga Kungo, Kissongo, Konda, Kungo e Sanga, Kunjo, Munenga, Mussende, Ndala Kachibo, Pambangala, Quissanga, Sanga, S\u00e3o Lucas, Ucu\u2013Seles, Waco Cungo, Sumbe, Porto Amboim, Quipaze, Atome, Quirimbo, Ambovia Bangula, Cacite, Castilhos, Chitado, Evale, Humbe, Kafima, Kahama, Angola, Kalonga, Kuvati, Kuvelai, M\u00f4ngua, Mukope, Mupa, Namakunde, Naulila, Ombala yo Mungu, Ondjiva, Oximolo, Shiede, Xangongo, Nehone Cafima, Evale, Simporo, yonde, Xagongo, Onc\u00f3cua, Otthinjau Alto\u2013Uama, Bailundo, Bimbe, Chiaca,"}, {"context": " Chinhama, Chinjenje, Chipipa, Chiumbo, Huambo, Ka\u00e1la, Kachiungo, Kakoma, Kalenga, Kalima, Kambuengo, Katabola, Katata, Kuima, L\u00e9pi, Londuimbali, Longonjo, Lunge, Mbave, Mungo, Sambo, Tchipeio, Thicala Yhilohanga, Ukuma, Ussoke, Hengue-Caculo, Ecuma, Tchiahana, Chilata, Tchiumbo, Hungulo, Mundundo Cacula, Cacula-Sede, Capunda-Cavilongo, Chiange-Sede, Chibemba, Chibia-sede, Chicomba, Chipindo, Dongo, Galangue, Gungue, Humpata-Sede, Jamba, Jau, Kakonda, Kal\u00e9pi, Kalukembe, Kassinga, Kilengue Kusse,"}, {"context": " Kutenda, Kuvango, Lubango, Matala, Ngola, Quihita, Quipungo-Sede, Tchipungo, Uaba, Santo Arina, Huila, Quilengues, Dinde, Imulo, Degola, Cusse, Bambi, Vincungo, Tchibembe, Capelango, Mulondo Bairro Oper\u00e1rio, Barra do Cuanza, Benfica e Mussulo, Cacuaco, Camama, Cassequel, Cazenga, Corimba, Da Ilha, Futungo de Belas, Golfe (Luanda), Havemos de Voltar, Hoji Ya Henda, Kinanga, Margal, Neves Bendinha, Ngola Kiluange, Prenda, Ramiro (Luanda), Rangel (Luanda), Rocha Pinto, Sambizanga, Tala Hady, Terra Nova (Luanda),"}, {"context": " Vila Estoril, Cuca (Luanda), Ilha do Cabo, Patrice Lumuba, Maculusso, Kilamba Kiaxi, Palanca (Luanda), Malanga (Luanda), Samba, Angola, Funda, Quicolo, Viana, Angola, Calumbo Iongo, Kachimo, Kamaxilo, Kambulo, Kamissombo, Kanzar, Kapenda Kamulemba, Kaungula, Kuango, L\u00f3vua, Luachimo, Luia, Luremo, Xa\u2013Cassau, X\u00e1-Muteba, Xinge, Lucapa, Sombo, Capaia, Thitato, Cuilo, Caluango, Iubalo, Muvulege, Luangue, Cassengue, Quitapa. Alto-Chikapa, Chiluage, Dala, Angola, Kakolo, Kassai-Sul, Kukumbi, Mona-Kimbundo,"}, {"context": " Mukonda, Murieje, Saurimo, Sombo, Xassengue, Cazeje, Luma Cassai Cacuso, Cinguengue, Kacuso, Pungo-Andongo, Cuale, Quinge, Cambundy, Catembo, Dumba (Malanje), Cabango, Tala Mungongo, Bembo (Malanje), Caombo, Micanda, Luquembo, Capunda, Dombo, Marimba, Angola, Quimbango, Quihuhu, Muquize, Catala, Quirima, Saltar, Cazongo, Cainda, Calunda, Lovua, Lumbala, Candundo, Macondo, Lumbala-Ngimbo, Chiume, Lumai, Lutembo, Mussuma, Ninda, Sessa, Kalamagia, Kalandula, Kambaxe, Kambo, Kambondo, Kangandala, Kangando,"}, {"context": " Karibo, Kateco-Kangola, Kaxinga, Kela, Kimambamba, Kissele, Kiuaba-Nzoji, Kizenga, Kota, Kunda-i\u00e1-Baze, Lombe, Malanje, Massango, Mikixi, Milando, Moma, Mufuma, Mukari, Ngola-Luije, Sokeko, Tembo-Aluma, Xandele Alto Zambeze, Chiume, Kaianda, Kalunda, Kamanongue, Kangamba, Kangumbe, Kavungo, Lago-Dilolo, L\u00e9ua, Liangongo, L\u00f3vua, Luakano, Lukusse, Lumbala-Kakengue, Lumbala N'guimbo, Lumeje Kameia, Lutembo, Lutuai ou Muangai, Macondo, Mussuma, Ninda, Tempu\u00e9, Sessa, Cassamba, Mui\u00e9 Baia dos Tigres, Bairro Dos Cora\u00e7\u00f5es,"}, {"context": " Bairro Her\u00f3is, Bentiaba, Bibala-Sede, Cainde, Caitou, Camacuio-Sede, Chingo (Namibe), Kapagombe, Lola (Namibe), Mamu\u00e9, Mucaba, Muinho, Savo-Mar, T\u00f4mbua, Torre do Tambo, Virei-Sede, Yona (Namibe), Namibe, Lucira Aldeia Vi\u00e7osa, Alto Zaza, Bembe, Beu, Buengas, Bungo, Cambembe, Cuilo Pombo, Dimuca, Kinvuenga, Lucanga, Mabaia, Macuba, Mbanza Nnosso, Quinzala, Sacandica, Uamba, Vista Alegre (U\u00edge), U\u00edge, Negage, Dimuca, Quisseque, Puri, Angola, Cangola, Mengo, Caiongo, Sanza Pompo, Milunga, Macocola,  Massau, Macolo, Quimbele, Cuango, Icoca, Nova Esperan\u00e7a (U\u00edge), Qitexe, Cuilo-Camboso, Cambamba, Songo, Nova Caipenba, Quipedro, Camatambo, Lembua, Petecussso, Maquela do Zombo, Quibocolo, Cuilo-Futa, Kanda, Kelo, Kiende, Kindeji, Kinzau, Kiximba, Kuimba, Loje-Kibala, Luvu, Mangue Grande, Mbanza Kongo, Mbuela, Mussera, Nkalambata, N\u00f3qui, Nzeto, Pedra de Feiti\u00e7o, Soyo, Sumba, Caluca, Nadinba, Buela, Luvaca, Lufico, Mpala Lulendo, Loge, Tomboco, Quingombe, Caluca, Nadimba, Buela,"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Benin", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The departments of Benin are subdivided into 77 communes, which in turn are divided into arrondissements and finally into villages or city districts. Prior to 1999 provinces were broken down into 84 districts, titled either urban or rural. Before independence, the six provinces were subdivided into Cercles, cantons, pr\u00e9fectures and villages or towns. The communes are listed below, by department:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Buenos Aires", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The city of Buenos Aires is administratively divided into fifteen comunas, unlike the rest of Argentina where the second order administrative division is \"departamentos\", or the Province of Buenos Aires which is subdivided into \"partidos\". Each comuna (commune) of the city encompasses one or more neighbourhoods (\"barrios\"), which are represented in the respective community centres for administrative purposes. The division by \"comuna\" was instituted by the 1996 Constitution of the City of Buenos Aires and modified in 2005 by Law #1777. The law was again modified in 2008, 2011, and 2013  The \"comuna\" are serially numbered. They are listed below in numerical order together with their constituent neighbourhoods."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Burundi", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The provinces of Burundi are subdivided into 119 communes. The communes are further subdivided into collines. The communes are listed below, by province:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Cambodia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communes of Cambodia (, \"khum\") are the third-level administrative divisions in Cambodia. They are the subdivisions of the districts of Cambodia. Communes can consist of as few as 3 or as many as 30 villages (\"phum\"), depending on population. In 1998 there were a total of 1,609 communes and 13,406 villages in Cambodia. However, according to the 2008 census there are now 1,621 communes in Cambodia and 14,073 villages. As of the 2017 commune elections, the number of communes had risen to 1,646. The villages located within Chrouy Changva include:  source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chroy_Changva_District"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Cameroon", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Arrondissements of Cameroon are the third-level units of administration in Cameroon. The arrondissements are organised by divisions and sub divisions of each province (now Regions). As of 2005 (and since 1996) there are 2 urban communities (Douala and Yaound\u00e9) divided into 11 urban districts (5 in Douala and 6 in Yaounde), 9 towns with special status (Nkongsamba, Bafoussam, Bamenda, Limbe, Ed\u00e9a, Ebolowa, Garoua, Maroua and Kumba) , 11 urban communes and 305 rural communes. The councils are headed by mayors and municipal councillors who are elected. The councils have a responsibility in principle for the management of local affairs under the supervision of the State."}, {"context": " Under Cameroonian law, the councils provide and regulate administrative, economic and social development, define and enforce work practices to increase efficiency and improve the quality of services, promote training and retraining of municipal staff. The ballot for the election of municipal elections is a mixed system with both a majority system and a proportional representation system. The party which obtains the absolute majority of votes wins all the seats. If no party receives an absolute majority, the party that obtains the plurality gets half the seats, with the other half allocated in proportion to the votes of each party.  The law requires the parties to take account of the various sociological components of the district, including the representation of ethnic minorities. Urban municipalities and special urban communities are headed by representatives appointed by decree of President of the Republic of Cameroon, who serve as mayor and the metropolitan chairman. In urban communities, there are urban district headed by elected municipal councils, but whose functions are much reduced than in other municipalities."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Chile", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A commune (, ) is the smallest administrative subdivision in Chile. It may contain cities, towns, villages, hamlets as well as rural areas. In highly populated areas, such as Santiago, Valpara\u00edso and Concepci\u00f3n, a conurbation may be broken into several communes. In sparsely populated areas, conversely, a commune may cover a substantial rural area together with several settled areas which could range from hamlets to towns or cities. The term \"commune\" is ambiguous in English, but the word is commonly used in translation for \"comuna.\" A comuna is similar to a \"county\" in Anglo-American usage and practice."}, {"context": " Each commune is governed by a directly elected body known as a municipal council (\"concejo municipal\") consisting of a mayor (\"alcalde\") and a group of councillors (\"concejales\"), for a period of four years. The communal civil service administration is known as the municipality (\"municipalidad\") and is headquartered at the mayor's office (\"alcald\u00eda\"). According to Chilean law, a single municipality may administer one or more communes, though currently, the only such case is the municipality of Cabo de Hornos, which administers the communes of Ant\u00e1rtica and Cabo de Hornos."}, {"context": " Chile's 346 communes are grouped into 54 provinces (\"provincia\", pl. \"provincias\"), which are themselves grouped into 16 regions (\"regi\u00f3n\", pl. \"regiones\"). Traditionally, Chilean regions are listed in geographical order starting with the northernmost region, leaving the Santiago Metropolitan Region at the end. The following table lists all Chilean communes, providing a complete list of administrative divisions at all levels. Each commune's municipality website is given along with the area and population from the National Statistics Institute's most recent census conducted in 2002."}]}, {"title": "Communes of France", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The () is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are analogous to civil townships and incorporated municipalities in the United States and Canada, \"Gemeinden\" in Germany or \"comuni\" in Italy. The United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and are vested with significant powers to manage the populations and land of the geographic area covered. The communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France."}, {"context": " Communes vary widely in size and area, from large sprawling cities with millions of inhabitants like Paris, to small hamlets with only a handful of inhabitants. Communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes ( or ), the difference residing in the lack of administrative powers. Except for the municipal arrondissements of its largest cities, the communes are the lowest level of administrative division in France and are governed by elected officials (mayor and a \"conseil municipal\") with extensive autonomous powers to implement national policy. (:"}, {"context": " A ' is a town, city, or other municipality. \"Commune\" in English has a historical bias, and implies an association with socialist political movements or philosophies, collectivist lifestyles, or particular history (after the rising of the Paris Commune, 1871, which could have more felicitously been called, in English, \"the rising of the City of Paris\"). There is nothing intrinsically different between \"town\" in English and ' in French. The French word ' appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin ', for a large gathering of people sharing a common life; from Latin \"\", 'things held in common'."}, {"context": " As of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France, 36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a considerably higher total than that of any other European country, because French communes still largely reflect the division of France into villages or parishes at the time of the French Revolution. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes; even uninhabited mountains or rain forests are dependent on a commune for their administration. This is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions:"}, {"context": " Furthermore, two regions without permanent habitation have no communes: In metropolitan France, the average area of a commune in 2004 was . The median area of metropolitan France's communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, at . The median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the median area of communes (\"comuni\") is ; in Belgium it is ; in Spain it is ; and in Germany, the majority of \"L\u00e4nder\" have communes (\"Gemeinden\") with a median area above ."}, {"context": " Switzerland and the \"L\u00e4nder\" of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the only places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of France's overseas \"d\u00e9partements\" such as R\u00e9union and French Guiana are large by French standards. They usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them. In R\u00e9union, demographic expansion and sprawling urbanization have resulted in the administrative splitting of some \"communes\"."}, {"context": " The median population of metropolitan France's communes at the 1999 census was 380 inhabitants. Again this is a very small number, and here France stands absolutely apart in Europe, with the lowest communes' median population of all the European countries (communes in Switzerland or Rhineland-Palatinate may have a smaller surface area, as mentioned above, but they are more populated). This small median population of French communes can be compared with Italy, where the median population of communes in 2001 was 2,343 inhabitants, Belgium (11,265 inhabitants), or even Spain (564 inhabitants)."}, {"context": " The median population given here should not hide the fact that there are pronounced differences in size between French communes. As mentioned in the introduction, a commune can be a city of 2 million inhabitants such as Paris, a town of 10,000 inhabitants, or just a hamlet of 10 inhabitants. What the median population tells us is that the vast majority of the French communes only have a few hundred inhabitants; but there are also a small number of communes within much higher populations. In metropolitan France just over 50 percent (57 percent) of the 36,569 communes have fewer than 500 inhabitants and, with 4,638,000 inhabitants, these smaller communes constitute just under 8 percent (7.7 percent) of the total population. In other words, just 8 percent of the French population live in 57 percent of its communes, whilst 92 percent are concentrated in the remaining 43 percent."}, {"context": " Alsace, with an area of , and now part of the R\u00e9gion Grand Est, used to be the smallest of the regions of metropolitan France, and still has no fewer than 904 communes. This high number is typical of metropolitan France but is atypical when compared with other European countries. It shows the distinctive nature of the French commune as a geo-political or administrative entity. With its 904 communes, Alsace has three times as many municipalities as Sweden, which has a much larger territory covering and yet is divided into only 290 municipalities (\"kommuner\"). Alsace has more than double the total number of municipalities of the Netherlands which, in spite of having a population nine times larger and a land area four times larger than Alsace, is divided into just 390 municipalities (\"gemeenten\")."}, {"context": " Most of the communes in Alsace, along with those in other regions of France, have rejected the central government's calls for mergers and rationalization. By way of contrast, in the German states bordering Alsace, the geo-political and administrative areas have been subject to various re-organizations from the 1960s onward. In the state of Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg, the number of \"Gemeinden\" or communities was reduced from 3,378 in 1968 to 1,108 in September 2007. In comparison, the number of communes in Alsace was only reduced from 945 in 1971 (just before the Marcellin law aimed at encouraging French communes to merge with each other was passed, see Current debate section below) to 904 in January 2007. Consequently, the Alsace region\u2014despite having a land area only one-fifth the size and a total population only one-sixth of that of its neighbor Baden-W\u00fcrttemberg\u2014has almost as many municipalities. The small Alsace region has more than double the number of municipalities compared to the large and populous state of North Rhine-Westphalia (396 \"Gemeinden\" in September 2007)."}, {"context": " Despite enormous differences in population, each of the communes of the French Republic possess a mayor (\"maire\") and a municipal council (\"conseil municipal\"), which jointly manage the commune from the city hall (\"mairie\"), with exactly the same powers no matter the size of the commune. This uniformity of status is a legacy of the French Revolution, which wanted to do away with the local idiosyncrasies and tremendous differences of status that existed in the kingdom of France. French law makes allowances for the vast differences in commune size in a number of areas of administrative law. The size of the municipal council, the method of electing the municipal council, the maximum allowable pay of the mayor and deputy mayors, and municipal campaign finance limits (among other features) all depend on the population echelon into which a particular commune falls."}, {"context": " Since the PLM Law of 1982, three French communes also have a special status in that they are further divided into municipal arrondissements: these are Paris, Marseille, and Lyon. The municipal arrondissement is the only administrative unit below the commune in the French Republic, but existing only in these three communes. These municipal arrondissements are not to be confused with the arrondissements that are subdivisions of French \"d\u00e9partements\": French communes are considered legal entities, whereas municipal arrondissements, by contrast, have no official capacity and no budget of their own."}, {"context": " The rights and obligations of communes are governed by the \"Code g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des collectivit\u00e9s territoriales (CGCT)\" which replaced the \"Code des communes\" (except for personnel matters) with the passage of the law of 21 February 1996 for legislation and decree number 2000-318 of 7 April 2000 for regulations. From 1794 to 1977\u2014except for a few months in 1848 and 1870-1871\u2014Paris had no mayor and was thus directly controlled by the departmental prefect. This meant that Paris had less autonomy than the smallest village. Even after Paris regained the right to elect its own mayor in 1977, the central government retained control of the Paris police. In all other French communes, the police are under the mayor's supervision."}, {"context": " French communes were created at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789-1790. Before the revolution, France's lowest level of administrative division was the parish (\"paroisse\"), and there were up to 60,000 of them in the kingdom. A parish was essentially a church, the houses around it (known as the village), and the cultivated land around the village. France was the most populous country in Europe at this time, with a population of approximately 25 million inhabitants in the late 18th century (England in contrast had only 6 million inhabitants), which accounts for the large number of parishes. French kings often prided themselves on ruling over a \"realm of 100,000 steeples\"."}, {"context": " Parishes lacked the municipal structures of post-Revolution communes. Usually, one contained only a building committee (\"conseil de fabrique\"), made up of villagers, which managed the buildings of the parish church, the churchyard, and the other numerous church estates and properties, and sometimes also provided help for the poor, or even administered parish hospitals or schools. Since the Ordinance of Villers-Cotter\u00eats of 1539 by Francis I, the priest in charge of the parish was also required to record baptisms, marriages, and burials. Except for these tasks, villages were left to handle other issues as they pleased. Typically, villagers would gather to decide over a special issue regarding the community, such as agricultural land usage, but there existed no permanent municipal body. In many places, the local feudal lord (\"seigneur\") still had a major influence in the village\u2019s affairs, collecting taxes from tenant-villagers and ordering them to work the corv\u00e9e, controlling which fields were to be used and when, and how much of the harvest should be given to him."}, {"context": " Additionally some cities had obtained charters during the Middle Ages, either from the king himself, or from local counts or dukes (such as the city of Toulouse chartered by the counts of Toulouse). These cities were made up of several parishes (up to ca. 50 parishes in the case of Paris), and they were usually enclosed by a defensive wall. They had been emancipated from the power of feudal lords in the 12th and 13th centuries, had municipal bodies which administered the city, and bore some resemblance with the communes that the French Revolution would establish except for two key points:"}, {"context": " In the north, cities tended to be administered by \"\u00e9chevins\" (from an old Germanic word meaning judge), while in the south, cities tended to be administered by \"consuls\" (in a clear reference to Roman antiquity), but Bordeaux was administered by \"jurats\" (etymologically meaning \"sworn men\") and Toulouse by \"capitouls\" (\"men of the chapter\"). Usually, there was no mayor in the modern sense; all the \"\u00e9chevins\" or \"consuls\" were on equal footing, and rendered decisions collegially. However, for certain purposes there was one \"\u00e9chevin\" or \"consul\" ranking above the others, a sort of mayor, although not with the same authority and executive powers as a modern mayor. This \"mayor\" was called provost of the merchants (\"pr\u00e9v\u00f4t des marchands\") in Paris and Lyon; \"maire\" in Marseille, Bordeaux, Rouen, Orl\u00e9ans, Bayonne and many other cities and towns; \"mayeur\" in Lille; \"premier capitoul\" in Toulouse; \"viguier\" in Montpellier; \"premier consul\" in many towns of southern France; \"pr\u00eateur royal\" in Strasbourg; \"ma\u00eetre \u00e9chevin\" in Metz; \"maire royal\" in Nancy; or \"pr\u00e9v\u00f4t\" in Valenciennes."}, {"context": " On 14 July 1789, at the end of the afternoon, following the storming of the Bastille, the provost of the merchants of Paris, Jacques de Flesselles, was shot by the crowd on the steps of Paris City Hall. Although in the Middle Ages the provosts of the merchants symbolized the independence of Paris and even had openly rebelled against King Charles V, their office had been suppressed by the king, then reinstated but with strict control from the king, and so they had ended up being viewed by the people as yet another representative of the king, no longer the embodiment of a free municipality."}, {"context": " Following that event, a \"commune\" of Paris was immediately set up to replace the old medieval chartered city of Paris, and a municipal guard was established to protect Paris against any attempt made by King Louis XVI to quell the ongoing revolution. Several other cities of France quickly followed suit, and communes arose everywhere, each with their municipal guard. On 14 December 1789, the National Assembly (\"Assembl\u00e9e Nationale\") passed a law creating the commune, designed to be the lowest level of administrative division in France, thus endorsing these independently created communes, but also creating communes of its own. In this area as in many others, the work of the National Assembly was, properly speaking, revolutionary: not content with transforming all the chartered cities and towns into communes, the National Assembly also decided to turn all the village parishes into full-status communes. The Revolutionaries were inspired by Cartesian ideas as well as by the philosophy of the Enlightenment. They wanted to do away with all the peculiarities of the past and establish a perfect society, in which all and everything should be equal and set up according to reason, rather than by tradition or conservatism."}, {"context": " Thus, they set out to establish administrative divisions that would be uniform across the country: the whole of France would be divided into \"d\u00e9partements\", themselves divided into arrondissements, themselves divided into cantons, themselves divided into communes, no exceptions. All of these communes would have equal status, they would all have a mayor at their head, and a municipal council elected by the inhabitants of the commune. This was a real revolution for the thousands of villages that never had experienced organized municipal life before. A communal house had to be built in each of these villages, which would house the meetings of the municipal council as well as the administration of the commune. Some in the National Assembly were opposed to such a fragmentation of France into thousands of communes, but eventually Mirabeau and his ideas of one commune for each parish prevailed."}, {"context": " On 20 September 1792, the recording of births, marriages, and deaths also was withdrawn as a responsibility of the priests of the parishes and handed to the mayors. Civil marriages were established and started to be performed in the \"mairie\" with a ceremony not unlike the traditional one, with the mayor replacing the priest, and the name of the law replacing the name of God (\"\"Au nom de la loi, je vous d\u00e9clare unis par les liens du mariage.\"\" \u2013 \"In the name of the law, I declare you united by the bonds of marriage.\"). Priests were forced to surrender their centuries-old baptism, marriage, and burial books, which were deposited in the \"mairies\". These abrupt changes profoundly alienated devout Catholics, and France soon was plunged into the throes of civil war, with the fervently religious regions of western France at its center. It would take Napoleon I to re-establish peace in France, stabilize the new administrative system, and make it generally accepted by the population. Napoleon also abolished the election of the municipal councils, which now were chosen by the prefect, the local representative of the central government."}, {"context": " Today, French communes are still very much the same in their general principles as those that were established at the beginning of the Revolution. The biggest changes occurred in 1831, when the French Parliament re-established the principle of the election of municipal councils, and in 1837 when French communes were given legal \"personality,\" being now considered legal entities with legal capacity. The Jacobin revolutionaries were afraid of independent local powers, which they saw as conservative and opposed to the revolution, and so they favored a powerful central state. Therefore, when they created the communes, they deprived them of any legal \"personality\" (as they did with the \"d\u00e9partements\"), with only the central state having legal \"personality.\" By 1837 that situation was judged impractical, as mayors and municipal councils could not be parties in courts. The consequence of the change, however, was that tens of thousands of villages which had never had legal \"personality\" (contrary to the chartered cities) suddenly became legal entities for the first time in their history. This is still the case today."}, {"context": " During the revolution, approximately 41,000 communes were created, on territory corresponding to the limits of modern-day France (the 41,000 figure includes the communes of the departments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie and Alpes-Maritimes which were annexed in 1795, but does not include the departments of modern-day Belgium and Germany west of the Rhine, which were part of France between 1795 and 1815). This was fewer than the 60,000 parishes that existed before the revolution (in cities and towns, parishes were merged into one single commune; in the countryside, some very small parishes were merged with bigger ones), but 41,000 was still a considerable number, without any comparison in the world at the time, except in the empire of China (but there, only county level and above had any permanent administration)."}, {"context": " Since then, tremendous changes have affected France, as they have the rest of Europe: the Industrial Revolution, two world wars, and the rural exodus have all depopulated the countryside and increased the size of cities. French administrative divisions, however, have remained extremely rigid and unchanged. Today about 90 percent of communes and departments are exactly the same as those designed at the time of the French Revolution more than 200 years ago, with the same limits. Countless rural communes that had hundreds of inhabitants at the time of the French Revolution now have only a hundred inhabitants or fewer. On the other hand, cities and towns have grown so much that their urbanized area is now extending far beyond the limits of their commune which were set at the time of the revolution. The most extreme example of this is Paris, where the urbanized area sprawls over 396 communes."}, {"context": " Paris in fact was one of the very few communes of France whose limits were extended to take into account the expansion of the urbanized area. The new, larger, commune of Paris was set up under the oversight of Emperor Napol\u00e9on III in 1859, but after 1859 the limits of Paris rigidified. Unlike most other European countries, which stringently merged their communes to better reflect modern-day densities of population (such as Germany and Italy around 1970), dramatically decreasing the number of communes in the processthe \"Gemeinden\" of West Germany were decreased from 24,400 to 8,400 in the space of a few yearsFrance only carried out mergers at the margin, and those were mostly carried out during the 19th century. From 41,000 communes at the time of the French Revolution, the number decreased to 37,963 in 1921, to 36,569 in 2008 (in metropolitan France)."}, {"context": " Thus, in Europe, only Switzerland has as high a density of communes as France, and even there an extensive merger movement has started in the last 10 years. To better grasp the staggering number of communes in France, two comparisons can be made: First, of the original 15 member states of the European Union there are approximately 75,000 communes; France alone, which comprises 16 percent of the population of the EU-15, had nearly half of its communes. Second, the United States, with a territory fourteen times larger than that of the French Republic, and nearly five times its population, had 35,937 incorporated municipalities and townships at the 2002 Census of Governments, fewer than that of the French Republic."}, {"context": " There have long been calls in France for a massive merger of communes, including by such distinguished voices as the president of the Cour des Comptes (the central auditing administrative body in France). So far, however, local conservatism has been strong, and no mandatory merging proposal ever has made it past committee in the French Parliament. In 1971 the Marcellin law offered support and money from the government to entice the communes to merge freely with each other, but the law had only a limited effect (only about 1,300 communes agreed to merge with others). Many rural communes with few residents struggle to maintain and manage basic services such as running water, garbage collection, or properly paved communal roads."}, {"context": " Mergers, however, are not easy to achieve. One problem is that mergers reduce the number of available elected positions, and thus are not popular with local politicians. Moreover, citizens from one village may be unwilling to have their local services run by an executive located in another village, whom they may consider unaware of or inattentive to their local needs. The expression \"intercommunality\" (\"intercommunalit\u00e9\") denotes several forms of cooperation between communes. Such cooperation first made its appearance at the end of the 19th century in the form of a law on 22 March 1890, which provided for the establishment of single-purpose intercommunal associations. French lawmakers having long been aware of the inadequacy of the communal structure inherited from the French Revolution for dealing with a number of practical matters, the so-called Chev\u00e8nement law of 12 July 1999 is the most recent and most thoroughgoing measure aimed at strengthening and simplifying this principle."}, {"context": " In recent years it has become increasingly common for communes to band together in intercommunal consortia for the provision of such services as refuse collection and water supply. Suburban communes often team up with the city at the core of their urban area to form a community charged with managing public transport or even administering the collection of local taxes. The Chev\u00e8nement law tidied up all these practices, abolishing some structures and creating new ones. In addition, it offered central government finance aimed at encouraging further communes to join together in intercommunal structures. Unlike the only partially successful statute enacted in 1966 and enabling urban communes to form urban communities, or the more marked failure of the Marcellin law of 1971, the Chev\u00e8nement law met with a large measure of success, so that a majority of French communes are now involved in intercommunal structures."}, {"context": " There are two types of these structures: In exchange for the creation of a community, the government allocates money to them based on their population, thus providing an incentive for communes to team up and form communities. Communities of communes are given the least money per inhabitant, whereas urban communities are given the most money per inhabitant, thus pushing communes to form more integrated communities where they have fewer powers, which they might otherwise have been loath to do if it were not for government money."}, {"context": " The Chev\u00e8nement law has been extremely successful in the sense that a majority of French communes now have joined the new intercommunal structures. On 1 January 2007, there were 2,573 such communities in metropolitan France (including five syndicats d'agglom\u00e9ration nouvelle, a category currently being phased out), made up of 33,327 communes (91.1 percent of all the communes of metropolitan France), and 52.86 million inhabitants, i.e. 86.7 percent of the population of metropolitan France. These impressive results however may hide a murkier reality. In rural areas, many communes have entered a community of communes only to benefit from government funds. Often the local syndicate has been turned officially into a community of communes, the new community of communes in fact managing only the services previously managed by the syndicate, contrary to the spirit of the law which has established the new intercommunal structures to carry out a much broader range of activities than that undertaken by the old syndicates. Some say that, should government money transfers be stopped, many of these communities of communes would revert to their former status of syndicate, or simply completely disappear in places where there were no syndicates prior to the law."}, {"context": " In urban areas, the new intercommunal structures are much more a reality, being created by local decision-makers out of genuine belief in the worth of working together. However, in many places local feuds have arisen, and it was not possible to set up an intercommunal structure for the whole of the urban area: some communes refusing to take part in it, or even creating their own structure. In some urban areas like Marseille there exist four distinct intercommunal structures! In many areas, rich communes have joined with other rich communes and have refused to let in poorer communes, for fear that their citizens would be overtaxed to the benefit of poorer suburbs."}, {"context": " Moreover, intercommunal structures in many urban areas are still new, and fragile: Tensions exist between communes; the city at the center of the urban area often is suspected of wishing to dominate the suburban communes; communes from opposing political sides also may be suspicious of each other. Two famous examples of this are Toulouse and Paris. In Toulouse, on top of there being six intercommunal structures, the main community of Toulouse and its suburbs is only a community of agglomeration, although Toulouse is large enough to create an Urban Community according to the law. This is because the suburban communes refused an urban community for fear of losing too much power, and opted for a community of agglomeration, despite the fact that a community of agglomeration receives less government funds than an urban community. As for Paris, no intercommunal structure has emerged there, the suburbs of Paris fearing the concept of a \"Greater Paris,\" and so disunity still is the rule in the metropolitan area, with the suburbs of Paris creating many different intercommunal structures all without the city."}, {"context": " One major often raised problem with intercommunality, is the fact that the intercommunal structures are not subject to directly election by the people, so it is the representatives of each individual commune that sit in the new structure. As a consequence, civil servants and bureaucrats are the ones setting up the agenda and implementing it, with the elected representatives of the communes only endorsing key decisions. In areas where languages other than French are or were spoken, most place-names have been translated into a French spelling and pronunciation, such as Dunkerque (formerly \"Duinkerke\" in Dutch), Toulouse (formerly \"Tolosa\" in Occitan), Strasbourg (formerly \"Stra\u00dfburg\" in German), and Perpignan (formerly \"Perpiny\u00e0\" in Catalan). However, many smaller communes have retained their native name. Other examples of retained names in the languages once spoken, or still spoken, on French territory:"}, {"context": " INSEE \"(Institut National de la Statistique et des \u00c9tudes \u00c9conomiques)\" gives numerical indexing codes to various entities in France, notably the communes (which do not coincide with postcodes). The complete code has eight digits and three spaces within, but there is a popular simplified code with five digits and no space within: Each commune has a municipal council (\"conseil municipal\") compound of municipal councilors (\"conseillers municipaux\"). The municipal council is the legislative and deliberative organ of the commune.  The municipal councilors are elected by the inhabitants of the commune for a 6-year term. Each commune is ruled by a mayor (\"maire\") elected for a 6-year term."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Ivory Coast", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The communes of Ivory Coast are a fifth-level administrative unit of administration in Ivory Coast. The sub-prefectures of Ivory Coast contain villages, and in select instances more than one village is combined into a commune. There are currently 197 communes in the 510 sub-prefectures. Prior to 2011, communes were the third-level administrative units of the country. Under the administration of Laurent Gbagbo, the number of communes grew to more than 1300. In 2011, a reorganisation of the country's subdivisions was undertaken, with a goal of decentralising the state. As part of the reorganisation, communes were converted from third-level divisions into fifth-level divisions."}, {"context": " In March 2012, the government abolished 1126 communes on the grounds that under the new jurisdiction of districts, regions, departments, and sub-prefectures, these particular communes were not viable governmental units economically. As a result of the reorganisation, there are now 197 communes in Ivory Coast. In many parts of the country, responsibilities previously carried out by the communes have been transferred to other levels of government. In most cases, the town that is the seat of the commune is also the seat of a sub-prefecture.  The following laws and decrees created communes in Ivory Coast. Many of the communes created by these laws were abolished in the decree of March 2012."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Kinshasa", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Njili The city-province (\"ville-province\" in French) of Kinshasa is divided into 24 \"communes\" (municipalities). Source : Institut National de la Statistique (INS)"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Luxembourg", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Luxembourg's 102 Communes (French: \"communes\", , ) conform to LAU Level 2 and are the country's lowest administrative divisions. Communes rank below cantons in Luxembourg's hierarchy of administrative subdivisions. Communes are often re-arranged, being merged or divided as demanded by demographic change over time. Unlike the cantons, which have remained unchanged since their creation, the identity of the communes has not become ingrained within the geographical sensations of the average Luxembourger. The cantons are responsible for the ceremonial, administrative, and statistical aspects of government, while the communes provide local government services."}, {"context": " The municipal system was adopted when Luxembourg was annexed into the French d\u00e9partement of For\u00eats in 1795. Despite ownership passing to the Netherlands, this system was maintained until it was introduced upon independence in 1843. The province of Luxembourg, which now constitutes part of Belgium, was part of Luxembourg prior to 1839 when it possessed a low degree of sovereignty. Due to Luxembourg's incorporation into the main country by its occupying powers, the modern municipal system in Luxembourg is less than two centuries old."}, {"context": " Luxembourg has three official languages: French, German, and the national language Luxembourgish. Some government websites also offer English versions The communes have no legislative control over matters relating to the national interest, which reside solely with the Chamber of Deputies. Below this level, however, they have wide-ranging powers. The communes provide public education, maintain the local road network and other infrastructure, ensure basic public health, and provide most social security. Communes also have discretionary powers for comprehensive health care (including maintenance of hospitals and clinics) within their borders, land-use planning, funds for cultural activities, provision of care to the elderly, and providing a sufficient supply of water, gas, and electricity."}, {"context": " There are currently 105 communes in the 12 cantons. The 12 communes with city status are Diekirch, Differdange, Dudelange, Echternach, Esch-sur-Alzette, Ettelbruck, Grevenmacher, Luxembourg, Remich, Rumelange, Vianden, and Wiltz. Since the country's creation in 1839, eight communes have changed their name and thirty-nine communes have been merged, resulting in the 102 communes that exist today. These defunct communes are listed in the table below. The municipal system was created during the French occupation to mirror the systems employed in the rest of the French Republic. These were overhauled in 1823, but the system itself was retained until independence, which was granted under the 1839 Treaty of London. The law regulating their creation and organisation dates to 24 February 1843, which was later enshrined in the Luxembourgian constitution promulgated on 17 October 1868."}, {"context": " Upon independence, there were 120 communes. A series of mergers and partitions between 1849 and 1891 increased this number to 130. Most of these were brought about by asymmetrical population growth, as population growth in the south caused the balance of population in the country to shift. For instance, some of the communes born in that era include Rumelange, Schifflange, and Walferdange. In the pattern of Nordstad, Erpeldange and Schieren were also separated from Ettelbruck. Since the end of the First World War, during which Luxembourg was occupied by Germany, the number of communes has dropped steadily. In 1920, Luxembourg City was expanded, annexing four surrounding communes. Another wave of mergers took place in the 1970s when sparsely-populated areas in the north and west of the country were merged to form Lac de la Haute-S\u00fbre, Rambrouch, and Wincrange. 2006 saw the creation of Kiischpelt and Tandel from four smaller communes, further reducing them to just 116. 2012 saw the creation of K\u00e4erjeng, Vall\u00e9e de l'Ernz and Parc Hosingen from smaller communes, and the merger of Clervaux, Esch-sur-S\u00fbre and Schengen into adjacent ones. With the 2015 expansion of Wiltz, there are now only 105 communes."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Mali", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A Commune is the third level administrative unit in Mali. Mali is divided into eight regions and one capital district (Bamako). These subdivisions bear the name of their principal city. The regions are divided into 49 Cercles. The Cercles and the district are divided into 703 Communes, with 36 Urban Communes and 667 Rural Communes, while some larger Cercles still contain Arrondissements above the Commune level, these are organisational areas with no independent power or office. Rural Communes are subdivided in Villages, while Urban Communes are subdivided into \"Quartier\" (wards or quarters). Communes usually bear the name of their principal town. The capital, Bamako, consists of six Urban Communes. There were initially 701 communes until the Law \"No. 01-043\" of 7 June 2001 created two new Rural Communes in the desert region in the north east of the country: Alata, M\u00e9naka Cercle in the Gao Region and Intadjedite, Tin-Essako Cercle in the Kidal Region."}, {"context": " Not every built up area (which might be described as a town) is a Commune, and not every Commune (especially Rural Communes) contains a large town. In most cases where towns and Communes coincide, Commune borders extend beyond built up areas and are, like the Communes of France on which they were based during the colonial period, an administrative structure. Unlike French Communes, they are not the lowest level administrative structure of the nation. Legally, the Commune structure was created by Law \"no 96- 059/AN- RM of 4 November 1996\". The communes generally retain the same boundaries as the former arrondissements. Commune affairs are directed by a Commune Council (\"conseil communal\") of elected members and a Commune executive (\"bureau communal\") of the elected Mayor and three adjutants. The executive is tasked with carrying out the directives voted by the Council. National policies are carried out by a Sub-Prefect (\"sous pr\u00e9fet\"), who also carries out certain of the Council's directives over the local arms or national bodies."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Mauritania", "paragraphs": [{"context": " There are 216 administrative Communes in Mauritania recognised by the Government of Mauritania. Adel Bagrou, Aere Mbar, Aghchorguitt, Ain Ehel Taya, Aioun, Ajar, Aleg, Amourj, Aoueinat Zbel, Aoujeft, Arr, Atar, Azgueilem Tiyab, Bababe, Bagrou, Barkeol, Bassiknou, Bethet Meit, Bogh\u00e9, Bokkol, Bou Lahrath, Bougadoum, Bouheida, Bouhdida, Boulenoir, Bouly, Boumdeid, Bousteila, Boutilimitt, Cheggar, Chinguitti, Dafor, Daghveg, Dar El Barka, Dionaba, Djeol, Djiguenni, El Ghabra, El Ghaire, Fassala, Foum Gleita, Ghabou, Gouraye, Gueller, Guerou, Hamod, Hassichegar, Jidr-El Mouhguen, Ka\u00e9di, Kamour, Kankossa, Keur-Macene, Kobeni, Koumbi Saleh, Lahraj, Legrane, Leouossy, Lexeiba, Maghama, Magta-Lahjar, Male, Mbagne, Mbalal, Mbout, Mederdra, Monguel, Moudjeria, Nbeika, Ndiago, N\u00e9ma, Niabina, Noual, Ouad Naga, Ouadane, Oualata, Oueid Jrid, Ould Yenge, Rdheidhi, Rkiz, Sangrave, S\u00e9libaby, Soudoud, Tachott, Tamchekett, Tawaz, Tekane, Tichit, Tidjikja, Tiguent, Timbedra, Timzinn, Tintane, Touil, Tufunde Cive, Wahatt, Woumpou."}, {"context": " Arafat, Benichab, Choum, Dar-Naim, El Mina, Kiffa, Ksar, Nouadhibou, Riyad, Rosso, Sebkha, Tevragh-Zeina, Teyarett, Toujouonine, Zoueratt. Agharghar, Agharghar, Aghoratt, Agoueinit, Ain Savra, Ain Varba, Ajoueir, Aouleiguatt, Aweintat I, Bagodine, Baidiyam, Bangou, Bareina, Beileguet Litama, Benamane, Beribavatt, Blajmil, Boeir Tores, Bouanze, Boubacar Ben Amer, Boutalhaya, Chelkhet Tiyad, Daw, Devaa, Dhar, Diadibeny Gandega, Dielwar, Dodol Cover, Doueirara, Edbaye El Hejaj, Edebaye Ehl Guelay, Egjert, El Aria, El Khatt, El Medah, El Megve, El Melgua, El Mouyessar, El Verea, Elb Address, Feireni, Ganki, Gasra El Barka, Ghlig Ehel Boye, Gogui, Guateidoume, Hassi Abdallah, Hassi Attilla, Hassi El Ahmed Bichna, Hassimhadi, Hsey Tine, Inal, Jreif, Kouroudel, Ksar el Barka, Laftah, Lahrach, Leghligue, Lehreijat, Lehseira, Lekhcheb, Leweynatt, Lexeiba, Maaden, Mabrouk I, Mabrouk II, Megva, Melga, Melzem Teichett, Modibougou, N' Savenni, Nebaghia, Nere Walo, Nouamleine, Nteichitt, Ntrguent, Ouad Amour, Ould Birem, Ouldmbouni, Oum Avnadech, Oum Lahyadh, Radhi, Sagne, Sani, Sava, Soufa, Taguilalett, Tarenguet Ehel Moul, Tektaka. Tenaha, Tenhemad, Tensigh, Tikobra, Tinghadej, Tmeimichatt, Tokomadji, Toutel, Voulaniya, Vrea Litama, Wali, Nouamghar."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Mayotte", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The French overseas department of Mayotte is divided into 17 communes. Most are located on the island of Grande Terre, except for Dzaoudzi and Pamandzi which are located on Petite Terre. Same communes, classified by decreasing area (Mayotte measures 373.24 km\u00b2 in total). The average or mean size of the communes is 21.95 km\u00b2, while the median size is 20.51 km\u00b2, slightly higher than the average and median size of the communes of Metropolitan France (14.88 and 10.73 km\u00b2 respectively). Same communes, classified by decreasing population (Mayotte counted 160,506 inhabitants in total in 2002, for an average population density of 430.0 hab./km\u00b2, more than four times the national average). The average or mean population of the communes is 9,441 inhabitants, while the median population is 6,963 inhabitants, much higher than the average and median population of Metropolitan France (1,542 and 380 inhabitants respectively). Each commune generally consists of several villages."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Medelli\u0301n", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The urban area of Medell\u00edn, Colombia is divided into six zones, which in turn are divided into 16 communes. Communes are then divided into neighborhoods () and institutional areas. The city has 249 neighborhoods and 20 institutional areas. Institutional areas are large sectors with some neighborhood characteristics, but its populations are not permanent and lack housing. An example of an institutional area is a university campus. The rural areas of Medell\u00edn are divided into 5 corregimientos, these in turn are divided into villages. The districts San Antonio de Prado and San Crist\u00f3bal are the most populous districts Colombia, with over thirty thousand inhabitants each. Medell\u00edn is structured following the flow of the Medell\u00edn River, which runs from south to north.  The six zones and 16 communes are the following:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Moldova", "paragraphs": [{"context": " According to the Moldovan law on territorial administrative organisation, two or more villages can form together a commune. Below is the list of communes of Moldova, grouped by the first-tier administrative unit to which they belong, and including the number and the list of villages of which they are comprised, plus the population values as of 2004 and 2014 Moldovan Censuses. In communes under Transnistrian control, censuses were not held."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Niger", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Departments of Niger are subdivided into communes. As of 2005, in the seven Regions and one Capital Area, there were 36 \"d\u00e9partements\", divided into 265 \"communes\", 122 \"cantons\" and 81 \"groupements\". The latter two categories cover all areas not covered by \"Urban Communes\" (population over 10000) or \"Rural Communes\" (population under 10000), and are governed by the Department, whereas Communes have (since 1999) elected councils and mayors. Additional semi-autonomous sub-divisions include \"Sultanates\", \"Provinces\" and \"Tribes\" (\"tribus\"). The Nigerien government estimates there are an additional 17000 Villages administered by \"Rural Communes\", while there are over 100 \"Quartiers\" (boroughs or neighborhoods) administered by \"Urban Communes\"."}, {"context": " The territorial reorganisation of Niger's local administration, known informally as the \"Decentralisation process\", was carried out through a series of laws from 1998 - 2005. Most important are: While often translated as \"town\", Nigerien communes are simply the third level administrative subdivision of the nation. These can be classified \"Urban\" or \"Rural\" communes, and while often identical in territory to the administrative unit of a town or city, all areas of the country fall within a commune. The communes are listed below, by Department.  \"Communaut\u00e9 Urbaine de Niamey\" (CUN) includes five \"Urban Communes\" and 99 \"Quarters\", each with elected representatives (\"d\u00e9l\u00e9gu\u00e9s de commune\") to the \"Council of the Communaut\u00e9 Urbaine de Niamey\". Six communes:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of Romania", "paragraphs": [{"context": " A commune (\"comun\u0103\" in Romanian) is the lowest level of administrative subdivision in Romania. There are 2,686 communes in Romania. The commune is the rural subdivision of a county. Urban areas, such as towns and cities within a county, are given the status of \"city\" or \"municipality\". In principle, a commune can contain any size population, but in practice, when a commune becomes relatively urbanised and exceeds approximately 10,000 residents, it is usually granted city status. Although cities are on the same administrative level as communes, their local governments are structured in a way that gives them more power. Some urban or semi-urban areas of fewer than 10,000 inhabitants have also been given city status.  Each commune is administered by a mayor (\"primar\" in Romanian). A commune is made up of one or more villages which do not themselves have an administrative function. Communes, like cities, correspond to the European Union's level 2 local administrative unit (LAU). Flore\u0219ti, in Cluj County, is the largest commune in Romania, with over 22,000 inhabitants."}]}, {"title": "Communes of Senegal", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communes of Senegal are the fourth-level administrative divisions in Senegal (below country, region and department). There are some 121 communes in Senegal which have urban status (\"communes de ville\"), apart from 46 \"communes d'arrondissement\" in the large towns and 370 rural communities (\"communaut\u00e9s rurales\") in the countryside."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Ain department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 407 communes of the Ain department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Aisne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 804 communes of the Aisne department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Allier department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 317 communes of the Allier department of France. The Allier department has 3 agglomeration communities (\"communaut\u00e9s d'agglom\u00e9ration\"):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Alpes-Maritimes department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 163 communes of the Alpes-Maritimes department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 198 communes of the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Ardennes department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 452 communes of the Ardennes department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Arde\u0300che department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 339 communes of the Ard\u00e8che department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Arie\u0300ge department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 331 communes of the Ari\u00e8ge department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Aube department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 431 communes of the Aube department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Aude department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 436 communes of the Aude department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Aveyron department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 285 communes of the Aveyron department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Bas-Rhin department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 516 communes of the Bas-Rhin department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Bas-Rhin department by arrondissements and cantons", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Country: France<br> R\u00e9gion: Alsace<br> D\u00e9partement: Bas-Rhin (7 arrondissements; 44 cantons; 527 communes)"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Bouches-du-Rho\u0302ne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 119 communes of the Bouches-du-Rh\u00f4ne department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Calvados department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 537 communes of the Calvados department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Cantal department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 247 communes of the Cantal department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Charente department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 381 communes of the Charente department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Charente-Maritime department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 465 communes of the Charente-Maritime department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Cher department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 290 communes of the Cher department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Corre\u0300ze department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 283 communes of the Corr\u00e8ze department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 124 communes of the Corse-du-Sud department of France. CAA means \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Pays Ajaccien\", created in 2002"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Co\u0302te-d'Or department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 704 communes of the C\u00f4te-d'Or department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Co\u0302tes-d'Armor department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 355 communes of the C\u00f4tes-d'Armor department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Creuse department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 258 communes of the Creuse department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Deux-Se\u0300vres department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 290 communes of the Deux-S\u00e8vres department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Dordogne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 520 communes of the Dordogne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Doubs department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 576 communes of the Doubs department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Dro\u0302me department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 367 communes of the Dr\u00f4me department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Essonne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 196 communes of the Essonne department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Eure department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 596 communes of the Eure department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Eure-et-Loir department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 373 communes of the Eure-et-Loir department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Finiste\u0300re department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 279 communes of the Finist\u00e8re department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Gard department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " This is a list of the 353 communes of the Gard department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Gers department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 462 communes of the Gers department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Gironde department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 538 communes of the Gironde department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Guadeloupe department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 32 communes of the Guadeloupe overseas department of France. Former communes detached from Guadeloupe on 22 February 2007:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Guyane department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 22 communes of the Guyane overseas department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haut-Rhin department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 366 communes of the French department of Haut-Rhin."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Corse department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 236 communes of the Haute-Corse department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018): <br>"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Garonne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 587 communes of the French department of Haute-Garonne."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Loire department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 257 communes of the Haute-Loire department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Marne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 427 communes in the French department of Haute-Marne."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Sao\u0302ne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 542 communes in the French department of Haute-Sa\u00f4ne."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Savoie department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 281 communes of the French department of Haute-Savoie. In 2017 a number of these communes formed the \"Communaut\u00e9 d'agglom\u00e9ration du Grand Annecy\" (CAA)."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Haute-Vienne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 200 communes of the Haute-Vienne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Hautes-Alpes department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 163 communes of the Hautes-Alpes department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Hautes-Pyre\u0301ne\u0301es department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 470 communes of the Hautes-Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Hauts-de-Seine department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 36 communes of the Hauts-de-Seine department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the He\u0301rault department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 343 communes of the H\u00e9rault department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Ille-et-Vilaine department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 345 communes of the Ille-et-Vilaine department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Indre department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 243 communes of the Indre department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Indre-et-Loire department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 272 communes of the Indre-et-Loire department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Ise\u0300re department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 521 communes in the French department of Is\u00e8re."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Jura department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 506 communes of the Jura department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Landes department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 330 communes of the Landes department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Loir-et-Cher department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 272 communes of the Loir-et-Cher department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Loire department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 326 communes of the Loire department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Loire-Atlantique department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 208 communes of the Loire-Atlantique department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Loiret department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is the list of the 326 communes of the Loiret department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Lot department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 320 communes of the Lot department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Lot-et-Garonne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 319 communes of the French department of Lot-et-Garonne."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Loze\u0300re department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 158 communes of the Loz\u00e8re department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Lyon Metropolis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 59 communes of the Lyon Metropolis, France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Maine-et-Loire department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 183 communes of the Maine-et-Loire department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Manche department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 476 communes of the Manche department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Marne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 613 communes in the French department of Marne."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Martinique department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 34 communes of the Martinique overseas department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Mayenne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 254 communes of the Mayenne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 592 communes of the Meurthe-et-Moselle department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Meuse department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 501 communes of the Meuse department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Morbihan department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 253 communes of the Morbihan department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Moselle department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 727 communes of the Moselle department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Nie\u0300vre department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 309 communes of the Ni\u00e8vre department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Nord department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 648 communes of the Nord department of the French Republic."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Oise department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 686 communes of the Oise department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Orne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 389 communes of the Orne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 891 communes of the Pas-de-Calais department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Puy-de-Do\u0302me department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 467 communes of the Puy-de-D\u00f4me department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Pyre\u0301ne\u0301es-Atlantiques department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 546 communes of the Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Atlantiques department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Pyre\u0301ne\u0301es-Orientales department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es-Orientales department is composed of 226 communes. Most of the territory (except for the district of Fenolheda) formed part of the Principality of Catalonia until 1659, and Catalan is still spoken (in addition to French) by a significant minority of the population. The Catalan names of communes are taken from the \"Enciclop\u00e8dia catalana\" and are intended for comparison with the official French names: they do not indicate the current or former linguistic status of the commune. The following names of communes are no longer in use,  either because the commune has been absorbed into another commune or because it has changed name."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Republic of the Congo", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Republic of the Congo includes six communes, divided in urban districts (\"arrondissements\"). Two of these communes, Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire, are also a department:"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Re\u0301union department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 24 communes of the R\u00e9union (an overseas department of France), along with the arrondissement (district) in which they are located, and the intercommunality of which they are a member."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Rho\u0302ne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 219 communes of the Rh\u00f4ne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Sao\u0302ne-et-Loire department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 567 communes of the Sa\u00f4ne-et-Loire department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Sarthe department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 360 communes of the Sarthe department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Savoie department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 285 communes of the Savoie department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Seine-Maritime department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 711 communes of the French department of Seine-Maritime. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 40 communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Seine-et-Marne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 510 communes of the Seine-et-Marne department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Somme department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 779 communes of the Somme department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Tarn department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 319 communes of the Tarn department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Tarn-et-Garonne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 195 communes of the Tarn-et-Garonne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Territoire de Belfort department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 102 communes of the Territoire de Belfort department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Val-d'Oise department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 184 communes of the Val-d'Oise department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2018):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Val-de-Marne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 47 communes of the Val-de-Marne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Var department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 153 communes of the Var department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Vaucluse department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 151 communes of the Vaucluse department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Vende\u0301e department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 267 communes of the Vend\u00e9e department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Vienne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 274 communes of the Vienne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Vosges department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 507 communes of the Vosges department of France. The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2017):"}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Yonne department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 428 communes of the Yonne department of France."}]}, {"title": "Communes of the Yvelines department", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The following is a list of the 262 communes of the French department of Yvelines."}]}, {"title": "Communesin B", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communesin B is a cytotoxic fungi isolate."}]}, {"title": "CommuniCore", "paragraphs": [{"context": " CommuniCore was a pavilion dedicated to technological advance located at EPCOT Center in Walt Disney World, Florida. It occupied two semi-circular buildings behind Spaceship Earth at the center of Future World. The two buildings were known as CommuniCore East and West and housed rotating exhibits. Closed and redesigned in 1994, the former CommuniCore buildings are now the home of Innoventions. CommuniCore was the hub of EPCOT Center, both geographically and conceptually, as it brought together nearly all of the ideas and concepts explored in Future World and complemented the experiences offered by other pavilions. For example, the Energy Exchange was located in a sector of CommuniCore adjacent to the Universe of Energy, giving curious guests the opportunity to explore the concept of energy more comprehensively after exiting the pavilion."}, {"context": " Having debuted at the dawn of the modern computer era, the emphasis throughout CommuniCore was primarily on educating the public about computers. The feature exhibit was a tour through EPCOT Computer Central, the computer hub of EPCOT Center that ran nearly everything throughout the park. The original version was named the Astuter Computer Revue (featuring a song by the Sherman Brothers titled \"The Computer Song\"). It had the distinction of being the shortest-lived attraction at the park. The tour was updated and re-opened as Backstage Magic."}, {"context": " In the southern quadrant of CommuniCore East one could shop at the Centorium, the largest merchandise location in EPCOT Center. The Stargate Restaurant in the northern quadrant of CommuniCore East and the Sunrise Terrace in the southern quadrant of CommuniCore West were open for breakfast, lunch and dinner. Other exhibits inside CommuniCore East included Compute-A-Coaster, the Great American Census Quiz, Get Set Jet and the Flag Games, all featuring brand new touch-screen technology. Also featured were the TravelPort, and the Electronic Forum, where one could take the EPCOT Poll, an interactive census on popular issues. One could also take a look at the Population Clock, a device that displayed the rough population of the United States and changed accordingly with every passing second. CommuniCore East was also the residence of SMRT-1, a friendly robot who used the latest in voice recognition technology to interact with Guests. At CommuniCore West was FutureCom, an exhibit sponsored by AT&T that forecast the advent of things like electronic commerce, Expo Robotics, and an educational resource center called, at various times, EPCOT Outreach, Ask Epcot, and the Epcot Discovery Center."}, {"context": " Planned exhibits incorporated into the design of the buildings included a second floor, intended to house a PeopleMover system which would allow riders to preview the features and attractions within CommuniCore. The buildings were also designed so that they could easily be expanded outwards, facilitating easy additions to expand the exhibit capacity of the attraction as a whole. In an effort to keep EPCOT updated and vital, CommuniCore was closed in January 1994 to be redesigned into Innoventions, a more eclectic, wild, and corporate-driven take on a Science and Technology pavilion. The Stargate Restaurant became the Electric Umbrella, and the Sunrise Terrace was divided into the Pasta Piazza Ristorante and Fountain View Espresso and Bakery. In 2001, Pasta Piazza closed; the space sat vacant until 2006, when it was converted into the Epcot Character Connection (now Epcot Character Spot). The Expo Robotics area became The Walt Disney Imagineering Labs (closed in October 1997). In June 1998, part of the former \"lab\" space became Ice Station Cool, which was redecorated and renamed Club Cool, a small Coca-Cola sponsored exhibit where one can try Coca-Cola products from around the world. In 1999, Centorium expanded and became MouseGear."}, {"context": " Even with the closure of CommuniCore, a few elements of the old attraction still remained untouched, with some remaining to this day. For example, Innoventions West had a large section of the building unchanged from its CommuniCore days up until 2007. In the glass-walled hallway behind Pasta Piazza, the original large circular ceiling light fixtures, and the original carpet patterned by the CommuniCore logo were in the shape of the two buildings it housed. However, in May 2007 the carpeting and light fixtures were changed. Additionally, the original EXIT signs can be seen scattered throughout Innoventions."}, {"context": " SMRT-1, the robot that interacted with guests in CommuniCore East, was displayed in the Concourse Steakhouse at the Contemporary Resort near the Magic Kingdom until it was later sold after SMRT-1 suffered an accidental fall at the Steakhouse that caused minor damage. In 2009, one of the attractions, Compute-A-Coaster, was resurrected conceptually with The Sum of All Thrills, which allows guests to design their own roller coaster then ride a simulation of their design in a KUKA arm-operated vehicle"}]}, {"title": "CommuniGate Pro", "paragraphs": [{"context": " CommuniGate Pro (CGP) is a scalable carrier grade email server, unified communications server, true FMC solutions as well as development platform all integrated into one. CommuniGate Pro provides web interface (with context-insensitive online help facilities) for configuration of its services. Since version 5 custom procedural CG/PL scripting language is provided for performing advanced configuration tasks, including modification of or integration with software's modules. Perl, Java and command line interface-based application programming interfaces are also available."}, {"context": " CommuniGate Pro integrates with Microsoft Outlook via bundled Messaging Application Programming Interface and ActiveSync connectors. Support for other personal information managers, including Apple Inc.'s iCal, is also available. Communications between connectors and server may be encrypted using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) cryptographic protocols. CommuniGate Pro includes mail transfer agent (MTA) that supports POP3, IMAP4 and SMTP (along with their secure variations), as well as webmail interface. Apart from standard genre-defined functionality, it is capable of subscribing users to several mailboxes and advanced mail filtering (including calling arbitrary external software, e.g. SpamAssassin for anti-spam protection). Anti-virus protection is available via extra modules, sold separately."}, {"context": " Since version 5 CommuniGate Pro includes Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) server, which provides instant messaging and voice and video conferencing along with custom Windows Messenger-compatible collaboration-oriented extensions for presence sharing, whiteboarding, and screen and file sharing. Starting with version 5.1 CommuniGate Pro includes its own XML Interface to Messaging, Scheduling, and Signaling (XIMSS) protocol together with flash-based \"Pronto!\" client for this protocol. XIMSS offers HTTP- and XML-based client interface to a complex of communications services provided by one server. Although the protocol is not bound to CommuniGate Pro, its scope is derived from the parent project's functionality; so far no other XIMSS servers were announced."}, {"context": " Since version 5.1 Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is also supported. CommuniGate Pro is available as free download, although until registered, it adds a one-line banner to the messages. The list of supported platforms include AIX, BeOS, BSD/OS, FreeBSD, HP-UX, IBM OS/2, IBM OS/400, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, OpenVMS, OS X, QNX, SCO UnixWare, SCO OpenServer, SGI IRIX, Solaris, Tru64, and Microsoft Windows. Connecters may be installed onto clients directly from deployed server and support automatic update feature."}, {"context": " In their generally positive reviews, Wendy M. Grossman of ZDNet, Aaron Weiss of ServerWatch and Michael Caton of eWeek praised CommuniGate Pro for its scalability, set of features and high configurability, while criticising it for high price and complexity. Aaron Weiss notes: \"CommuniGate Pro is extremely configurable. It wants to be configured. It begs for it. This is a hard-core enterprise server product likely to intimidate point-and-click administrators but happily curl every tech monkey's tail.\""}]}, {"title": "Communia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " COMMUNIA is a thematic project funded by the European Commission within the eContentplus framework addressing theoretical analysis and strategic policy discussion of existing and emerging issues concerning the public domain in the digital environment - as well as related topics, including, but not limited to, alternative forms of licensing for creative material; open access to scientific publications and research results; management of works whose authors are unknown (i.e. orphan works). COMMUNIA effort is aimed at helping to frame the general discourse on and around the public domain in the digital environment by highlighting the challenges arising from the increasingly complex interface between scientific progress, technological innovation, cultural development, socio-economic change on the one hand and the rise and mass deployment/usage of digital technologies in the European information society."}, {"context": " Coordinated by Prof. Juan Carlos De Martin of the Politecnico of Torino's NEXA Research Center for Internet and Society, COMMUNIA started its activities on 1 September 2007 and ended on 28 February 2011. The network includes 51 members (initially were 36) - universities, consumer organisations, libraries, archives, non-profit entities, etc. - mostly from the EU, but also from a few overseas countries, such as United States and Brazil, where similar policy discussions are underway. Among its activities, COMMUNIA is organizing several workshops and three International conferences in EU countries, and will produce and disseminate a final strategic report. Under the title \"Global Science and the Economics of Knowledge-Sharing Institutions\", the Second COMMUNIA International Conference was held in June 2009 in Torino, Italy. The event addressed the conceptual foundations and practical feasibilities of contractually constructed \u201ccommons\u201d and related bottom-up public domain initiatives (joint policy guidelines, common standards, institutional policies, etc.) capable of offering shared access to a variety of research resources, identifying models, needs and opportunities for effective initiatives across a diverse range of research areas. The third and final conference was held on 28\u201330 June 2010 in Torino, Italy, under the title of Universities & Cyberspace: Reshaping Knowledge Institutions for the Networked Age. In several sessions, workshops and keynote speeches, more than 200 attendees from all over the world discussed such issues as: What can universities contribute to the future of the internet? How can our educational institutions promote ideals of free exchange of information yet cope with the complex intellectual property challenges presented by the Net? Video-recordings, papers and other material related to the conference are fully available on the COMMUNIA website. Also, YouTube hosts several videos, including many video-interviews with Conference speakers."}, {"context": " Along with on-going activities of its five working groups (particularly finalized to the Project's Final Strategic Report), the COMMUNIA network co-hosted the Free Culture Research Conference (October 8\u20139, 2010) in Berlin. The COMMUNIA network also drafted the Public Domain Manifesto, a document aimed at \"reminding citizens and policy-makers of a common wealth that, since it belongs to all, it is often defended by no-one\". The Manifesto has been signed by hundreds of individuals and organizations worldwide, and anybody can sign it.  Another initiative launched within the context of COMMUNIA is Public Domain Day: Every year on New Year's Day, due to the expiration of copyright protection terms on works produced by authors who died several decades earlier, thousands of works enter the public domain (differing in the various countries according to their copyright laws). Several events were also planned for January 1, 2011, to celebrate the role of the public domain in our societies."}]}, {"title": "Communia, Iowa", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communia is an unincorporated community located in Clayton County, Iowa in the south half of section 8, Volga Township. The area was established as a German Colony in 1847. In early 1847 a group of pioneers, consisting of nine Germans and one Frenchman, met in St. Louis to set off for new land under the direction of Joseph Venus. The group traveled north by steamer to the area of Dubuque. After buying necessary provisions, the group left on foot with only one wagon and three oxen to the northwestern area of Volga Township."}, {"context": " After one night of rest the men immediately began building and organizing the area. During the first year, three log houses and one blacksmith shop were built. The men welcomed anyone who wished to join, no matter how much or how little they contributed, and over the next few years the colony began to flourish. The community prided themselves for the peaceful and welcoming environment they had created. The colony maintained a good relationship with the large Native American population and regularly traded with other emerging colonies within the area.  Despite the great success of the colony, the area dissolved in 1858 after much of the land and property was sold off by various families."}]}, {"title": "Communibiology", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communibiology is a term referring to a research paradigm that emphasizes the \"neurobiological foundations of human communication behavior\". Communibiologists take the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate in communication development. The communibiological paradigm was developed by Beatty and McCroskey as an alternative to the nature side supporting social learning paradigm. They believe genetics to be far more important in the development of communication behavior than learning processes and the environment. These researchers do concede, however, that genetic factors are not the sole source of communication behavior. One accepted ratio is 20% influence of cultural, situational, or environmental stimuli and 80% influence of inborn, neurobiological structures on behavior."}, {"context": " A main idea of communibiology is that temperaments are based on genetics and not learned. Communication behavior is an expression of a person's temperament, though the behavior and the temperament do not completely correlate with one another. Identical genetics producing identical temperaments may result in non-identical communication behaviors because one's temperament can be expressed in various ways. The behaviors, though, will be very similar. Hans Eysenck found that the two main aspects of personality are temperament and intelligence. He identified three personality types:"}, {"context": " Eysenck argues that these three personalities are inherited lending it useful to the communibiological paradigm. Other research has also found that the genetic component of these three personalities is between 50% and 80%. J.A. Gray proposed a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and a behavioral activation system (BAS). The threshold for activation of the BIS or BAS is inherited. Horvath compared identical and fraternal twins in order to determine if communicator styles were inherited. This was the first study of heredity and communication and it found that communicator style variables are partially inherited, leading the way for the future studies regarding inheritance and communication behavior."}, {"context": " There exist many opponents to the communibiological paradigm. First are the \"nurture\" and social learning paradigm supporters that believe learning has more to do with communication behavior than genetics. Then there are others who believe the whole argument is pointless. Condit calls for a multi-causal model that would incorporate both nature and nurture. Condit also claims that the 80% genetic influence found by Beatty and McCroskey lacks solid evidence and a number in the 40-60% range is more likely, helping to support her view of incorporating both nature and nurture."}, {"context": " Communication apprehension afflicts millions of people worldwide. Much of the communibiological research done on communication apprehension has found that the causes of the affliction are inherited. Beatty and McCroskey first developed their communibiological paradigm in order to more effectively diagnose communication apprehension. Using Eysenck's personality theory they identified the primary components of communication apprehension to be introversion and neuroticism. They also used Gray's theory to say that activation of the behavioral inhibition system is related to anxiety. They make note that both the personalities of Eysenck's theory and the activation threshold of the BIS in Gray's theory have been found to be inherited. Differences in communication apprehension correspond to differences in BIS activation threshold, supporting the idea that communication apprehension is genetically determined."}, {"context": " Interpersonal communication motives explain why people with communication apprehension communicate the way they do. People with low communication apprehension communicate for pleasure, affection, control, and relaxation while people with high communication apprehension communicate for inclusion and escape. Paulsel and Mottet (2004) found that interpersonal communication motives such as these are at least a partially influenced by genetically inherited traits. Jung and McCroskey (2004) studied the presence of communication apprehension in those speaking their first language and those speaking their second language. Communication apprehension in the first language predicted communication apprehension in the second language. This combated the social learning perspective which would say that the learning of the second language would influence and change the communication apprehension in the second language. They concluded that communication apprehension is a cross-linguistic trait and that the trait is genetically inherited."}, {"context": " The fact that the causes of communication apprehension are inherited has major implications in how it can be treated as some believe that if communication apprehension is genetically inherited then it cannot be changed. Others contend, as Beatty and McCroskey did, that since traits are not exclusively genetically inherited, treatment is viable. Treatment in terms of the communibiological paradigm involves learning to control the negative aspects of one's inherited temperament. Comminubiologists argue that people are born with specific temperaments based on their genetics. This does not, however, mean that they do not learn. Culture plays an important role in this learning process. While they are born with a certain temperament a person learns how to respond to specific temperamental demands based on the culture they are surrounded by. As children they learn which temperamental actions are appropriate and which are not. So while the basis of a person's communication behavior is based on genetics, a good portion of their behavior is also affected by the culture they are raised in. In fact, the communication behaviors ethnocentrism and homophobia were found to have no relationship with a person's genetic make-up or temperament. These traits are instead developed through culture."}]}, {"title": "Communic", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communic is a progressive metal band from Kristiansand, Norway. The band was founded in 2003 and has released five albums. The first two have received positive reviews from magazines and critics. Communic was founded in March 2003 as a side project for Oddleif Stensland, guitarist, and Tor Atle Andersen, drummer, both from the band Scariot. Soon after, they were joined by bassist Erik Mortensen, who had been a bandmate of Stensland in a band called Ingermanland. In January 2004, the band recorded its first three demo tracks at dUb Studios in Norway. While only 100 copies of the Conspiracy in Mind demo were printed, it would be selected as Demo of the Month by the magazine \"Rock Hard\" in April. In March they signed with the Danish management company Intromental Management. In April, Stensland left Scariot to concentrate full-time on Communic."}, {"context": " In July 2004, Communic signed with the German label Nuclear Blast and in September began recording their debut album, \"Conspiracy in Mind\" in the Denmark studios of producer Jacob Hansen. Danish keyboardist Peter Jensen (ex-Sinphonia) played keyboards for the album. It was released on February 21, 2005, and received good reviews, being voted as \"Album of the Month\" in the magazines \"Rock Hard\" and \"Heavy, Oder Was!?\". \"Rock Hard\" subsequently selected Communic as Newcomer of the Year. Following the album's release, Communic toured Europe with Ensiferum and Graveworm, including an appearance at the Gelsenkirchen Rock Hard Festival. Jensen joined the band on the tour, but was not made a permanent member as he did not live in Norway."}, {"context": " In early 2006, the band flew once again to Denmark to record the follow-up to Conspiracy in Mind in Jacob Hansen's studios. This time, Norwegian Endre Kirkesola was brought in to record the keyboard parts in the album. Unlike Jensen, Kirkesola did not tour with the band to promote the album. The album, \"Waves of Visual Decay\", was released in May 2006 and, like its predecessor, also received good critical reviews, being selected as Album of the Month (or Week, or Issue, depending on the magazine) in Swiss magazine \"Metal World\", Portuguese magazine \"Metal Morfose\", Norwegian magazine \"Scream\", German magazines \"Rock Hard\", \"Guitar Magazine\", \"Metal Hammer\", \"Metal Heart\" and \"Heavy\", and the e-zine laut.de.  Communic's 3rd studio album, Payment of Existence, was released on May 30, 2008. Communic released their fourth studio record, \"The Bottom Deep\", on July 22, 2011. Communic released their fifth studio record, \"Where Echoes Gather\", on October 27, 2017."}]}, {"title": "CommunicAsia", "paragraphs": [{"context": " CommunicAsia is an information and communications technology (ICT) exhibition and conference held in Singapore. The annual event has taken place since 1979 and is usually held in June. The show customarily runs concurrently with the BroadcastAsia and EnterpriseIT exhibitions and conferences, all of which are operated by Singapore Exhibition Services. The CommunicAsia Exhibition is amongst the largest platforms organised for the ICT industry in the Asia-Pacific region. It draws global industry brands to showcase key and emerging technologies. Past exhibitors include LG, Yahoo!, Huawei, Skype, Research in Motion (Blackberry) and Samsung. Attendance is restricted to trade professionals but admission is free."}, {"context": " The CommunicAsia Summit features roundtable discussions, forums and presentations on a broad range of industry specific subjects. The summit draws participation from top experts and managers from the telecommunications, service provider and satellite sectors as well as senior government functionaries and regulators. From 1979 \u2013 1999 the show was a biennial event. It was held at the World Trade Centre, Singapore, from 1979 up until it moved to Suntec for the 1996 and 1998 shows. In 1999 CommunicAsia was held at Singapore Expo, where it continued to be hosted up until 2010."}, {"context": " CommunicAsia 2009 ran from 16 \u2013 19 June 2009 and the tradeshow featured 1,923 exhibiting companies from 60 countries and regions. The event attracted a total of 54,354 visitors from 100 countries spanning Asia-Pacific, Europe, US and the Middle-East. Significant announcements at the event included the launch of two new smartphones by Huawei - the Android-powered U8230 and the C8000, running the Windows Mobile operating system. LG also unveiled its Crystal GD900, the world\u2019s first transparent phone, while Samsung introduced its next era of smartphones in a worldwide launch. Garmin and ASUS also announced a first ever collaboration, the Garmin-ASUS nuvifones G60 and M20, smartphones with location-based capabilities."}, {"context": " The CommunicAsia 2009 Summit attracted 700 delegates and covered topics such as Mobile Services and Business Models, Network Enablers and Architectures, Satellite Communications Forum, Green Telecoms, Mobile Marketing and Advertising, Mobile TV and Entertainment, IPTV and Next Generation Broadband. Held from 15 \u2013 18 June at the Singapore Expo, CommunicAsia 2010 attracted over 55,000 industry visitors, conference speakers and delegates. 55% of visitors came from overseas, mostly from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand."}, {"context": " CommunicAsia 2010 witnessed the launch of the Alcatel One Touch Net mobile by Yahoo! and Skype announcing the availability of its interface on three Sony Ericsson Symbian-based smartphones. Other announcements made at the event included the unveiling by Samsung of the Wave and Wave Pro and NTTDOCOMO\u2019s F-04B, a separable phone that allows users to talk and view their phone at the same time. It is estimated that deals worth over of $US3.6 billion were signed at the tradeshow. The CommunicAsia Summit drew 650 participants and discussed topics including Mobile Value Added Services, Network Security, Getting in on the Cloud, Converged Device Management, Mobile Marketing & Profitability and New Revenue Opportunities. The keynote address was delivered by Josh Silverman, CEO of Skype."}, {"context": " The 2011 exhibition and conference was held from 21\u2013 24 June at Marina Bay Sands and closed with strong results. CommunicAsia2012 was once again held at Marina Bay Sands from 19\u201322 June 2012. Over 200 debut exhibitors such as AMOS-Spacecom, Calix Networks, Integrasco, Mentum, NovelSat, SLA Mobile and Yokogawa Engineering Asia, shared their expertise and launch their latest products and solutions at the show. EnterpriseIT, held in conjunction with CommunicAsia, showcased exhibitors comprising international IT systems providers and companies offering enterprise solutions ranging from cloud computing, data centre services, security and M2M software to mobility solutions and video conferencing."}, {"context": " The show featured notable product launches from the likes of Huawei, Panasonic, Blackmagic Design, among others. The event saw Asia's largest satellite representation in a technology trade event, and also offered conferences and meetings with over 350 experts. The show closed with healthy visitor figures on 22 June 2012. CommunicAsia2013 was held from 18\u201321 June 2013 at Marina Bay Sands for the third time. CommunicAsia 2014 will be held from 17-20 June 2014 at Marina Bay Sands. CommunicAsia 2017 was held from 23-25 May 2017 at Marina Bay Sands."}]}, {"title": "Communicable Disease Centre", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communicable Disease Centre (CDC; Malay: Simplified Chinese:; Tamil: is a division of Tan Tock Seng Hospital at Moulmein Road in Novena, Singapore. The centre is used to quarantine patients with highly infectious diseases such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. All patients who are affected with these highly contagious diseases are quarantined at the CDC and the centre is used to control an outbreak of such diseases. The hospital was used in 2003 to house the majority of the patients infected by the SARS coronavirus. As the centre could not accommodate all the infected patients, other hospitals were used as well.  The CDC was known as the Middleton Hospital when it first opened in 1907 to function as an isolation camp. The centre became a branch of Tan Tock Seng Hospital in 1985 and is now run by the National Healthcare Group."}]}, {"title": "Communicant Semiconductor Technologies", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicant Semiconductor Technologies AG was a company based in Frankfurt (Oder), Eastern Germany, that aimed to mass-produce integrated circuits based on a carbon-doped silicon-germanium (Si-Ge:C) technology. The technology was developed by a local institute founded during the Communist era, Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics (IHP). IHP was founded as Institut f\u00fcr Halbleiterphysik (tr. Institute for Semiconductor Physics), on December 22, 1983, from the research part of its parent organization, (HFO, tr. \"Semiconductor Factory in Frankfurt (Oder)\"), then the largest IC factory in East Germany. HFO itself was founded in 1959. On the eve of reunification the plant had 8000 employees."}, {"context": " After German reunification, HFO lost its customer base in the Soviet bloc. Efforts were made to adapt, but it shrank from 8,000 to 100 people and finally closed in July 2002. However, IHP remained healthy and continued to receive research funding and to develop new technology. It received an English name Innovations for High Performance Microelectronics and kept the original initialism. Its staff won patents for a method where carbon doping prevents performance-killing boron diffusion. The new federal government invested to bring economic development and to mitigate unemployment. IHP and Communicant became part of one such project. The Si-Ge:C technology from IHP and its productization at Communicant targeted wireless Internet applications. Investors included Intel, the Dubai Airport Free Zone Authority, and Deutsche Bank. Despite the earlier bursting of the dot.com bubble, it secured the equivalent of $325 million in private equity in April 2002. But the plan stirred controversy and acquired opponents: Infineon (which had a competing Si-Ge factory in Dresden) opposed it. In April 2003, Infineon threatened to move from Germany to Switzerland, citing high taxes. Then in December 2003, the federal loan guarantees to cover 75 percent of the project's \u20ac1.3 billion cost did not materialize and Communicant shut down with the factory unfinished.  Infineon stayed headquartered in Munich, Germany. The failure of the project was the topic of detailed post-mortems. In November 2006, the Hamburg-based solar energy company Conergy bought the site and built a production plant for solar cells and modules."}]}, {"title": "Communicate (Sasha & John Digweed album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate is a mix album by Sasha & John Digweed. It is their fifth mix album and the first since 1994 to not be part of the \"Northern Exposure\" concept album series. Critically, the album was generally less well received than \"\". \"Spin\" stated that despite a \"few stellar moments, [\"Communicate\"] is ultimately a let-down\". LAUNCHcast, too, described \"Communicate\" as \"boring and lackluster...stalled in a monochrome world of dead beats\", though \"Communicate\" matched \"Expeditions\" in the general reception of fans. \"Communicate\" is their latest DJ mix album together, not counting the remake of \"\" for the original album's 10th anniversary in 2004.  UK Compilation Chart: #13<br> Billboard 100: #149"}]}, {"title": "Communicate (TV series)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate is a Canadian game show television series which aired on CBC Television from 1966 to 1967. This series was inspired by the American game show \"Password\". Each contestant attempted to determine the name of an object or person based on a single-word clue provided by a teammate. The game was played between two teams, each team consisting of two people where one of those people was a celebrity. The competing pair of teams played up to three rounds, where the winning team remained on the show to play a new team. Contestants who were not celebrities received cash prizes when they won.  Celebrity guests included Frances Hyland, Jane Morgan, Cliff Robertson, Jimmy Tapp, Bill and Marilyn Walker and Paxton Whitehead. Tom Harvey hosted and moderated the game until December 1966 when he was replaced by Bill Walker. \"Communicate\" was produced in Montreal at the studios of CTV network affiliate CFCF-TV. This half-hour series was broadcast weekdays at 4:00\u00a0p.m. (Eastern) from 3 October 1966 to 25 October 1967."}]}, {"title": "Communicate (The Feelers album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate, released on 12 October 2001, is the second album by New Zealand rock band The Feelers. Singles include \"Communicate\", \"As Good As It Gets\", \"Astronaut\", \"Fishing for Lisa\", \"The Web\" and \"Anniversary\". It has sold over twice platinum on the New Zealand music charts."}]}, {"title": "Communicate (magazine)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate is a monthly trade magazine for the UK corporate communications community. Branding itself as \u2018the single voice for stakeholder relations\u2019, Communicate\u2019s focus is on how organisations engage with their stakeholders: the press, investors, employees, regulators, the supply chain and the communities in which they operate. As such, \"Communicate\" covers corporate communications, public relations, investor relations, internal communications, corporate social responsibility, crisis communications and public affairs."}, {"context": " With a monthly circulation of 10,000, it is read by in-house communications departments in the private and public sectors as well as communications consultancies and service providers across the UK. In addition to the magazine, Communicate publishes a weekly e-newsletter and hosts a website of the same name. \"Communicate\" magazine is published by Andrew Thomas, and edited by Brittany Golob. It is owned by Cravenhill Publishing, an independent publishing company based in London. Columnists and contributors have included:"}, {"context": " Each issue features a profile of a key figure in corporate communications. These have included: Jane Wilson of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, Andraea Dawson-Shepherd of Reckitt Benckiser and Simon Lewis when he was head of comms at 10 Downing Street. Communicate organise a number of awards events and conferences on key areas of corporate communications. Their awards events include: Their conferences include: In December 2009, \"Communicate\" magazine won the Best Launch category at the Independent Publisher Awards, organised by the Periodical Publishers Association.  In December 2010, \"Communicate\" magazine won the Media Brand of the Year category at the PPA's Independent Publisher Awards"}]}, {"title": "Communicate knowledge manifesto", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate knowledge manifesto is a manifesto that was created by a Dutch design student from ArtEZ in 2010. In 1972 there was a debate between Wim Crouwel and Jan van Toorn about the purpose of graphic design. This debate is still relevant in today's graphic design, what is its purpose? Communicate knowledge manifesto is based on the assumption that the graphic designer should be focused on spreading knowledge as much as possible. Not his/her own knowledge, but the knowledge of others. To improve the interaction between disciplines."}, {"context": " This first started as a small project, but other students from academia over the Netherlands soon joined in this manifesto. A number of groups have formed making this manifesto a reality. At this point, research groups have formed with Radboud University Nijmegen, Eindhoven University of Technology and the Jan Van Eyck Academie where graphic designers take part in the interaction between multiple disciplines and universities to create the best environment for communicating knowledge. The Royal Academy and the University of the Arts London have started similar projects also stated under the communicate knowledge manifesto."}]}, {"title": "Communicate!", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicate! is the first studio album by soul band The Solution formed by Nicke Andersson and Scott Morgan recorded at Atlantis Studio and mixed in Polar Studios. The album was released in 2004 and was followed up with \"Will Not Be Televised\" in 2008."}]}, {"title": "Communicate: Independent British Graphic Design since the Sixties", "paragraphs": [{"context": " An exhibition curated by Rick Poynor at the Barbican Art Gallery (2004) charting over 40 years of graphic design in the United Kingdom. The first major attempt to reflect on how the smaller independent studios and agencies marked and shaped the way we look at images in our everyday lives: from book and magazines, music covers and promotions, web design, corporate identities, politics and society and self-initiated projects. The exhibition assembled some of the most iconic pieces produced since the early sixties. From the covers for Penguin Books by Derek Birdsall and Romek Marber, the magazines \"The Face\" by Neville Brody and \"i-D\" by Terry Jones, the memorable \"Never Mind the Bollocks \u2013 Here\u2018s the Sex Pistols\", the Channel4 and BBC2 TV idents by Martin Lambie-Nairn, the graphic work for Pirelli by Fletcher/Forbes/Gill.  Other designers and studios included: Lucienne Roberts, Malcolm Garrett, Kate Hepburn, Peter Saville, Vaughan Oliver, Mark Farrow, Tomato, Intro, 8vo, Richard Hollis, Herbert Spencer, Ken Garland, Margaret Calvert, Jonathan Barnbrook, Why Not Associates, Trickett & Webb, Graphic Thought Facility, Jannuzzi Smith, Fuel, Kerr/Noble, Alan Kitching, The Designers Republic, Hi-Res, Paul Elliman, Nick Bell, Phil Baines and many others."}]}, {"title": "Communicating Doors", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicating Doors is a play written in 1994 by Alan Ayckbourn. The setting is a hotel suite that moves through time from 1974 to 2014. The central character, Poopay, must save herself from the murderous Julian by preventing the murders of Reece's two wives. Julia McKenzie took the role of Ruella for the UK tour and run at The Gielgud Theatre, which Angela Thorne subsequently took on when the show transferred to The Savoy Theatre."}]}, {"title": "Communicating X-Machine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communicating (Stream) X-Machine is a model of computation introduced by various researchers in the 1990s to model systems composed of communicating agents. The model exists in several variants, which are either based directly on Samuel Eilenberg's X-machine or on Gilbert Laycock's later Stream X-Machine."}]}, {"title": "Communicating finite-state machine", "paragraphs": [{"context": " In computer science, a communicating finite-state machine is a finite state machine labeled with \"receive\" and \"send\" operations over some alphabet of channels. They were introduced by Brand and Zafiropulo, and can be used as a model of concurrent processes like Petri nets. Communicating finite state machines are used frequently for modeling a communication protocol since they make it possible to detect major protocol design errors, including boundedness, deadlocks, and unspecified receptions. The advantage of communicating finite state machines is that they make it possible to decide many properties in communication protocols, beyond the level of just detecting such properties. This advantage rules out the need for human assistance or restriction in generality."}, {"context": " It has been proved with the introduction of the concept itself that when two finite state machines communicate with only one type of messages, boundedness, deadlocks, and unspecified reception state can be decided and identified while such is not the case when the machines communicate with two or more types of messages. Later, it has been further proved that when only one finite state machine communicates with single type of message while the communication of its partner is unconstrained, we can still decide and identify boundedness, deadlocks, and unspecified reception state."}, {"context": " It has been further proved that when the message priority relation is empty, boundedness, deadlocks and unspecified reception state can be decided even under the condition in which there are two or more types of messages in the communication between finite state machines. Boundedness, deadlocks, and unspecified reception state are all decidable in polynomial time (which means that a particular problem can be solved in tractable, not infinite, amount of time) since the decision problems regarding them are nondeterministic logspace complete."}, {"context": " Communicating finite state machines can be the most powerful in situations where the propagation delay is not negligible (so that several messages can be in transit at one time) and in situations where it is natural to describe the protocol parties and the communication medium as separate entities. Hierarchical state machines are finite state machines whose states themselves can be other machines. Since a communicating finite state machine is characterized by concurrency, the most notable trait in a communicating hierarchical state machine is the coexistence of hierarchy and concurrency. This had been considered highly suitable as it signifies stronger interaction inside the machine.  However, it was proved that the coexistence of hierarchy and concurrency intrinsically costs language inclusion, language equivalence, and all of universality."}]}, {"title": "Communicating sequential processes", "paragraphs": [{"context": " In computer science, communicating sequential processes (CSP) is a formal language for describing patterns of interaction in concurrent systems. It is a member of the family of mathematical theories of concurrency known as process algebras, or process calculi, based on message passing via channels. CSP was highly influential in the design of the occam programming language, and also influenced the design of programming languages such as Limbo, RaftLib, Go, Crystal, and Clojure's core.async. CSP was first described in a 1978 paper by Tony Hoare, but has since evolved substantially. CSP has been practically applied in industry as a tool for specifying and verifying the concurrent aspects of a variety of different systems, such as the T9000 Transputer, as well as a secure ecommerce system. The theory of CSP itself is also still the subject of active research, including work to increase its range of practical applicability (e.g., increasing the scale of the systems that can be tractably analyzed)."}, {"context": " The version of CSP presented in Hoare's original 1978 paper was essentially a concurrent programming language rather than a process calculus. It had a substantially different syntax than later versions of CSP, did not possess mathematically defined semantics, and was unable to represent unbounded nondeterminism. Programs in the original CSP were written as a parallel composition of a fixed number of sequential processes communicating with each other strictly through synchronous message-passing. In contrast to later versions of CSP, each process was assigned an explicit name, and the source or destination of a message was defined by specifying the name of the intended sending or receiving process. For example, the process"}, {"context": " repeatedly receives a character from the process named codice_1, and then sends that character to process named codice_2. The parallel composition assigns the names codice_1 to the codice_4 process, codice_5 to the codice_6 process, and codice_2 to the codice_8 process, and executes these three processes concurrently. Following the publication of the original version of CSP, Hoare, Stephen Brookes, and A. W. Roscoe developed and refined the \"theory\" of CSP into its modern, process algebraic form. The approach taken in developing CSP into a process algebra was influenced by Robin Milner's work on the Calculus of Communicating Systems (CCS), and vice versa. The theoretical version of CSP was initially presented in a 1984 article by Brookes, Hoare, and Roscoe, and later in Hoare's book \"Communicating Sequential Processes\", which was published in 1985. In September 2006, that book was still the third-most cited computer science reference of all time according to Citeseer (albeit an unreliable source due to the nature of its sampling). The theory of CSP has undergone a few minor changes since the publication of Hoare's book. Most of these changes were motivated by the advent of automated tools for CSP process analysis and verification. Roscoe's \"The Theory and Practice of Concurrency\" describes this newer version of CSP."}, {"context": " An early and important application of CSP was its use for specification and verification of elements of the INMOS T9000 Transputer, a complex superscalar pipelined processor designed to support large-scale multiprocessing. CSP was employed in verifying the correctness of both the processor pipeline, and the Virtual Channel Processor which managed off-chip communications for the processor. Industrial application of CSP to software design has usually focused on dependable and safety-critical systems. For example, the Bremen Institute for Safe Systems and Daimler-Benz Aerospace modeled a fault management system and avionics interface (consisting of some 23,000 lines of code) intended for use on the International Space Station in CSP, and analyzed the model to confirm that their design was free of deadlock and livelock. The modeling and analysis process was able to uncover a number of errors that would have been difficult to detect using testing alone. Similarly, Praxis High Integrity Systems applied CSP modeling and analysis during the development of software (approximately 100,000 lines of code) for a secure smart-card Certification Authority to verify that their design was secure and free of deadlock. Praxis claims that the system has a much lower defect rate than comparable systems."}, {"context": " Since CSP is well-suited to modeling and analyzing systems that incorporate complex message exchanges, it has also been applied to the verification of communications and security protocols. A prominent example of this sort of application is Lowe\u2019s use of CSP and the FDR refinement-checker to discover a previously unknown attack on the Needham-Schroeder public-key authentication protocol, and then to develop a corrected protocol able to defeat the attack. As its name suggests, CSP allows the description of systems in terms of component processes that operate independently, and interact with each other solely through message-passing communication. However, the \"\"Sequential\"\" part of the CSP name is now something of a misnomer, since modern CSP allows component processes to be defined both as sequential processes, and as the parallel composition of more primitive processes. The relationships between different processes, and the way each process communicates with its environment, are described using various process algebraic operators. Using this algebraic approach, quite complex process descriptions can be easily constructed from a few primitive elements."}, {"context": " CSP provides two classes of primitives in its process algebra: CSP has a wide range of algebraic operators. The principal ones are: One of the archetypal CSP examples is an abstract representation of a chocolate vending machine and its interactions with a person wishing to buy some chocolate. This vending machine might be able to carry out two different events, \u201ccoin\u201d and \u201cchoc\u201d which represent the insertion of payment and the delivery of a chocolate respectively. A machine which demands payment (only in cash) before offering a chocolate can be written as:"}, {"context": " A person who might choose to use a coin or card to make payments could be modelled as: These two processes can be put in parallel, so that they can interact with each other. The behaviour of the composite process depends on the events that the two component processes must synchronise on. Thus, whereas if synchronization was only required on \u201ccoin\u201d, we would obtain If we abstract this latter composite process by hiding the \u201ccoin\u201d and \u201ccard\u201d events, i.e. we get the nondeterministic process This is a process which either offers a \u201cchoc\u201d event and then stops, or just stops. In other words, if we treat the abstraction as an external view of the system (e.g., someone who does not see the decision reached by the person), nondeterminism has been introduced."}, {"context": " The syntax of CSP defines the \u201clegal\u201d ways in which processes and events may be combined. Let formula_42 be an event, and formula_43 be a set of events. Then the basic syntax of CSP can be defined as: Note that, in the interests of brevity, the syntax presented above omits the formula_45 process, which represents divergence, as well as various operators such as alphabetized parallel, piping, and indexed choices. CSP has been imbued with several different formal semantics, which define the \"meaning\" of syntactically correct CSP expressions. The theory of CSP includes mutually consistent denotational semantics, algebraic semantics, and operational semantics."}, {"context": " The three major denotational models of CSP are the \"traces\" model, the \"stable failures\" model, and the \"failures/divergences\" model. Semantic mappings from process expressions to each of these three models provide the denotational semantics for CSP. The \"traces model\" defines the meaning of a process expression as the set of sequences of events (traces) that the process can be observed to perform. For example, More formally, the meaning of a process formula_53 in the traces model is defined as formula_54 such that:"}, {"context": " where formula_59 is the set of all possible finite sequences of events. The \"stable failures model\" extends the traces model with refusal sets, which are sets of events formula_60 that a process can refuse to perform. A \"failure\" is a pair formula_61, consisting of a trace formula_62, and a refusal set formula_63 which identifies the events that a process may refuse once it has executed the trace formula_62. The observed behavior of a process in the stable failures model is described by the pair formula_65. For example,"}, {"context": " The \"failures/divergence model\" further extends the failures model to handle divergence. The semantics of a process in the failures/divergences model is a pair formula_68 where formula_69 is defined as the set of all traces that can lead to divergent behavior and formula_70. Over the years, a number of tools for analyzing and understanding systems described using CSP have been produced. Early tool implementations used a variety of machine-readable syntaxes for CSP, making input files written for different tools incompatible. However, most CSP tools have now standardized on the machine-readable dialect of CSP devised by Bryan Scattergood, sometimes referred to as CSP. The CSP dialect of CSP possesses a formally defined operational semantics, which includes an embedded functional programming language."}, {"context": " The most well-known CSP tool is probably \"Failures/Divergence Refinement 2\" (\"FDR2\"), which is a commercial product developed by Formal Systems (Europe) Ltd. FDR2 is often described as a model checker, but is technically a \"refinement\" checker, in that it converts two CSP process expressions into Labelled Transition Systems (LTSs), and then determines whether one of the processes is a refinement of the other within some specified semantic model (traces, failures, or failures/divergence). FDR2 applies various state-space compression algorithms to the process LTSs in order to reduce the size of the state-space that must be explored during a refinement check. FDR2 has been succeeded by FDR3, a completely re-written version incorporating amongst other things parallel execution and an integrated type checker. It is released by the University of Oxford, which also released FDR2 in the period 2008-12."}, {"context": " The \"Adelaide Refinement Checker\" (\"ARC\") is a CSP refinement checker developed by the Formal Modelling and Verification Group at The University of Adelaide. ARC differs from FDR2 in that it internally represents CSP processes as Ordered Binary Decision Diagrams (OBDDs), which alleviates the state explosion problem of explicit LTS representations without requiring the use of state-space compression algorithms such as those used in FDR2. The \"ProB\" project, which is hosted by the Institut f\u00fcr Informatik, Heinrich-Heine-Universit\u00e4t D\u00fcsseldorf, was originally created to support analysis of specifications constructed in the B method. However, it also includes support for analysis of CSP processes both through refinement checking, and LTL model-checking. ProB can also be used to verify properties of combined CSP and B specifications. A ProBE CSP Animator is integrated in FDR3."}, {"context": " The \"Process Analysis Toolkit\" (PAT) \"VisualNets\" produces animated visualisations of CSP systems from specifications, and supports timed CSP. \"CSPsim\" is a lazy simulator. It does not model check CSP, but is useful for exploring very large (potentially infinite) systems. SyncStitch is a CSP refinement checker with interactive modeling and analyzing environment. It has a graphical state-transition diagram editor. The user can model the behavior of processes as not only CSP expressions but also state-transition diagrams. The result of checking are also reported graphically as computation-trees and can be analyzed interactively with peripheral inspecting tools. In addition to refinement checks, It can perform deadlock check and livelock check.  Several other specification languages and formalisms have been derived from, or inspired by, the classic untimed CSP, including: In as much as it is concerned with concurrent processes that exchange messages, the Actor model is broadly similar to CSP. However, the two models make some fundamentally different choices with regard to the primitives they provide:"}]}, {"title": "Communicating vein", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicating veins are veins that communicate two different points of the venous system. They can communicate the great saphenous vein with the small saphenous vein, (for example the Giacomini vein) or the superficial venous system with the deep one. In this case they are called perforator veins and have a very important role in the venous system hemodynamics."}]}, {"title": "Communicating vessels", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicating vessels is a name given to a set of containers containing a homogeneous fluid, connected at the base and subjected to the same atmospheric pressure. When the liquid settles, it balances out to the same level in all of the containers regardless of their shape and volume. If additional liquid is added to one vessel, the liquid will again find a new equal level in all the connected vessels. This process is part of Stevin's Law and occurs because gravity and pressure are constant in each vessel (hydrostatic pressure)."}, {"context": " Blaise Pascal proved in the seventeenth century that the pressure exerted on a molecule of a liquid is transmitted in full and with the same intensity in all directions. Since the days of ancient Rome, the concept of communicating vessels has been used for indoor plumbing, via aquifers and lead pipes. Water will reach the same level in all parts of the system, which acts as communicating vessels, regardless of what the lowest point is of the pipes \u2013 although in practical terms the lowest point of the system depends on the ability of the plumbing to withstand the pressure of the liquid. In cities, water towers are frequently used so that city plumbing will function as communicating vessels, distributing water to higher floors of buildings with sufficient pressure.  Hydraulic presses, using systems of communicating vessels, are widely used in various applications of industrial processes."}]}, {"title": "Communicatio Socialis", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicatio Socialis is a specialized communication and media sciences publication bearing the subtitle \u201cJournal for Media Ethics and Communication in Church and Society\u201d. It addresses communication and media ethical issues in addition to topics related to \u201cReligion, Church and Communication\u201d. Whereas media ethics is usually understood as a philosophical ethical field and thereby as a branch of philosophy, the publication applies a more broadly defined concept of media ethics and includes, in addition to philosophy, theoretical and empirical works as well as contributions from the social sciences."}, {"context": " The journal is published on a quarterly basis by the Matthias-Gr\u00fcnewald-Verlag (a part of the consortium Schwabenverlag AG). The individual issues are approximately 120 pages in length. In addition to the print editions the articles also appear as e-journals. With the media ethical realignment as of issue 3/4 (2013) the publication also provides its content on-line. New issues are published there simultaneously with the appearance of the print issues. Within the first 12 months of publication texts appear subject to a charge. At the end of these 12 months all content of the publication is freely accessible.(Open access)."}, {"context": " The journal understands the ongoing media transition as an ethical challenge. With the mediatization and digitalization of social communication the relevance of critical and ethical reflection in these fields increases. According to its self-understanding, the central theme of Communicatio Socialis should be an interdisciplinary and \u201cdefining site for media ethical discussion and research.\". The media ethical orientation of the periodical stands in keeping with a world-view characterized by the Christian faith. Media ethics is understood as a Christianly motivated contemporaneous service to society. The subject area \u201cReligion, Church and Communication\u201d, respectively Roman Catholic-related journalism, is the second thematic priority of the journal upon which, until 2013, the primary focus lay."}, {"context": " In 1968 Franz-Josef Eilers, in connection with Michael Schmolke and Karl R. H\u00f6ller founded the professional journal for communication in religion, Church and society \u201cCommunicatio Socialis\u201d. The title of the publication is derived from the title of the conciliar decree Decretum de instrumentis Communicationis socialis \u201eInter mirifica\u201c\". This was the first decree of the Catholic Church concerning means of communication. From its theological orientation, the journal stands for the spirit of this Council and feels committed to its declarations and ecumenical perspective."}, {"context": " The founder, Franz-Josef Eilers SVD, saw a special task for the journal in the collection and summarization of news concerning events in the sphere of church-related journalism throughout the world. Communicatio Socialis should serve all those, who feel committed towards the journalistic tasks and responsibilities as a source of information and to stimulate discussion. Recently, Communicatio Socialis has developed in the direction of a general communications and media science publication with a media-ethical and ecclesiastic-religious focus."}, {"context": " From 1968 until 1993 the journal bore the subtitle \u201cPublication for Journalism in the Church and World\u201d. In the issue 26/1993 this changed to \u201cInternational Publication for Communication in Religion, Church and Society\u201d. With the double-issue 3/4 (2013) the journal underwent a media-ethical realignment and now bears the subtitle \u201cPublication for Media Ethics and Communication in the Church and Society\u201d. Further information concerning the history of the journal can be found in volume 45/2012, Number 4.  List of previous and current publishers: The members of the current editorial team are Renate Hackel-de Latour (Executive Editor), Annika Franzetti, Petra Hemmelmann, Christian Klenk and Christoph Sachs."}]}, {"title": "Communicatio idiomatum", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communicatio idiomatum (Latin: \"communication of properties\") is a Christological concept about the interaction of deity and humanity in the person of Jesus Christ. It maintains that in view of the unity of Christ's person, his human and divine attributes and experiences might properly be referred to his other nature so that the theologian may speak of \"the suffering of God\". The germ of the idea is first found in Ignatius of Antioch () but the development of an adequate, agreed technical vocabulary only took place in the fifth century with the First Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon twenty years later and the approval of the doctrine of the hypostatic union of the two distinct natures of Christ. In the sixteenth century, the Reformed and Lutheran churches disagreed on this question."}, {"context": " The philosopher J. G. Hamann argued that the \"communicatio idiomatum\" applies not just to Christ, but should be generalised to cover all human action: 'This \"communicatio\" of divine and human \"idiomatum\" is a fundamental law and the master-key of all our knowledge and of the whole visible economy'. Ignatius of Antioch emphasised both the oneness of Christ and the reality of his two-fold mode of existence: \"There is one physician, composed of flesh and spirit, generate and ingenerate, God in man, authentic life from death, from Mary and from God, first passible then impassible, Jesus Christ our Lord\". but he uses phrases like 'the blood of God', 'the suffering of my God' and 'God ... was conceived by Mary'; Tertullian () stated that the saviour was composed of two 'substances' and the human substance was in every respect genuine. He was the first theologian to tackle the question of the relationship between them; each preserved its particular qualities but Christians observe \"a twofold condition, not confused but conjoined, Jesus, in one Person at once God and man\" On the whole he referred what the one person experienced to the appropriate substance but at times uses phrases such as \"God was truly crucified, truly died\" thus anticipating the \"communicatio idiomatum\"."}, {"context": " When the question as to how deity and humanity could be combined in the Saviour was investigated in depth, two schools of thought emerged: one associated with Alexandria and the other with Antioch. Alexandrian thought drew heavily on Platonism and was markedly dualist, while its biblical exegesis was mystical and allegorical. Its Christology has been labelled the \"Word-flesh\" model. It took no real account of a human soul in Christ, but viewed the incarnation as the union of the Word with human flesh, thus drawing on the platonic concept of the human being as a soul which inhabited an essentially alien body. Antiochene thought was based far more on Aristotelian principles and its biblical exegesis tended to be literal and historical thus taking the genuine humanity of the Saviour very seriously. The traditional label for this second type of Christology is \"Word-man\": the Word united himself with a complete humanity, i.e. soul plus body, which did justice to the genuinely human being described in the Gospels. The Antiochene-style Christology stresses the distinction of natures and therefore a more tightly regulated communication of properties; while the Alexandrian-type Christology underscores the unity of Jesus Christ and therefore a more complete communication of properties."}, {"context": " Reformed and Lutheran Christians are divided on the \"communicatio idiomatum\". In Reformed doctrine, the divine nature and the human nature are united strictly in the person of Christ. According to his humanity, Jesus Christ remains in heaven as the bodily high priest, even while in his divine nature he is omnipresent. This coincides with the Calvinistic view of the Lord's Supper, the belief that Christ is truly present at the meal, though not substantially and particularly joined to the elements (Pneumatic presence). Lutherans, on the other hand, describe a union in which the divine and the human natures share their predicates more fully. Lutheran scholastics of the 17th century called the Reformed doctrine that Christ's divine nature is outside or beyond his human nature the \"extra calvinisticum\". They spoke of the \"genus maiestaticum\", the view that Jesus Christ's human nature becomes \"majestic,\" suffused with the qualities of the divine nature. Therefore, in the eucharist the human, bodily presence of Jesus Christ is \"in, within, under\" the elements ()."}]}, {"title": "Communication", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication (from Latin \"comm\u016bnic\u0101re\", meaning \"to share\") is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all communication are: The scientific study of communication can be divided into: The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile (such as in Braille) and haptic, olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical. Human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been closely linked with progress in telecommunication."}, {"context": " Nonverbal communication describes the processes of conveying a type of information in the form of non-linguistic representations. Examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates to the intent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and stress. It affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion."}, {"context": " Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Paul Wazlawick's laws: you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received. Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denovative message. Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others' communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. However, non-verbal communication is ambiguous. When verbal messages contradict non-verbal messages, observation of non-verbal behaviour is relied on to judge another's attitudes and feelings, rather than assuming the truth of the verbal message alone."}, {"context": " There are several reasons as to why non-verbal communication plays a vital role in communication: \"Non-verbal communication is omnipresent.\" They are included in every single communication act. To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes. E-mails and web chats allow an individual's the option to change text font colours, stationary, emoticons, and capitalization in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium."}, {"context": " \"Non-verbal behaviours are multifunctional.\" Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the same time in communication acts and allow the chance for simultaneous messages to be sent and received. \"Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.\" Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing, and glaring are non-verbal behaviours that are used and understood by people regardless of nationality. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers."}, {"context": " Verbal communication is the spoken or written conveyance of a message. Human language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word \"language\" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages."}, {"context": " As previously mentioned, language can be characterized as symbolic. Charles Ogden and I.A Richards developed The Triangle of Meaning model to explain the symbol (the relationship between a word), the referent (the thing it describes), and the meaning (the thought associated with the word and the thing). The properties of language are governed by rules. Language follows phonological rules (sounds that appear in a language), syntactic rules (arrangement of words and punctuation in a sentence), semantic rules (the agreed upon meaning of words), and pragmatic rules (meaning derived upon context)."}, {"context": " The meanings that are attached to words can be literal, or otherwise known as denotative; relating to the topic being discussed, or, the meanings take context and relationships into account, otherwise known as connotative; relating to the feelings, history, and power dynamics of the communicators. Contrary to popular belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Sign Language) are considered to be verbal communication because their sign vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic structures abide by all the necessary classifications as spoken languages. There are however, nonverbal elements to signed languages, such as the speed, intensity, and size of signs that are made. A signer might sign \"yes\" in response to a question, or they might sign a sarcastic-large slow yes to convey a different nonverbal meaning. The sign yes is the verbal message while the other movements add nonverbal meaning to the message."}, {"context": " Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through the continuing progression of technology. Advances include communications psychology and media psychology, an emerging field of study. The progression of written communication can be divided into three \"information communication revolutions\": Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. Gregory Bateson called it \"the replication of tautologies in the universe. This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation."}, {"context": " Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities including, but not limited to: strategic communications planning, media relations, public relations (which can include social media, broadcast and written communications, and more), brand management, reputation management, speech-writing, customer-client relations, and internal/employee communications. Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications communications professionals can possess are excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and strategically."}, {"context": " Communication is one of the most relevant tools in political strategies, including persuasion and propaganda. In mass media research and online media research, the effort of the strategist is that of getting a precise decoding, avoiding \"message reactance\", that is, message refusal. The reaction to a message is referred also in terms of approach to a message, as follows: Holistic approaches are used by communication campaign leaders and communication strategists in order to examine all the options, \"actors\" and channels that can generate change in the semiotic landscape, that is, change in perceptions, change in credibility, change in the \"memetic background\", change in the image of movements, of candidates, players and managers as perceived by key influencers that can have a role in generating the desired \"end-state\"."}, {"context": " The modern political communication field is highly influenced by the framework and practices of \"information operations\" doctrines that derive their nature from strategic and military studies. According to this view, what is really relevant is the concept of acting on the Information Environment. The information environment is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions, which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are known as physical, informational, and cognitive."}, {"context": " Family communication is the study of the communication perspective in a broadly defined family, with intimacy and trusting relationship. The main goal of family communication is to understand the interactions of family and the pattern of behaviors of family members in different circumstances. Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another. It also helps to understand the feelings of one another."}, {"context": " Family communication study looks at topics such as family rules, family roles or family dialectics and how those factors could affect the communication between family members. Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors. Family communication study also digs deep into certain time periods of family life such as marriage, parenthood or divorce and how communication stands in those situations. It is important for family members to understand communication as a trusted way which leads to a well constructed family."}, {"context": " In simple terms, interpersonal communication is the communication between one person and another (or others). It is often referred to as face-to-face communication between two (or more) people. Both verbal and nonverbal communication, or body language, play a part in how one person understands another. In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message. Content messages are messages about the topic at hand and relational messages are messages about the relationship itself. This means that relational messages come across in \"how\" one says something and it demonstrates a person's feelings, whether positive or negative, towards the individual they are talking to, indicating not only how they feel about the topic at hand, but also how they feel about their relationship with the other individual."}, {"context": " There are many different aspects of interpersonal communication including: Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message or intention of the message being conveyed. This may result in failure of the communication process or cause an effect that is undesirable. These include filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication apprehension, gender differences and political correctness This also includes a lack of expressing \"knowledge-appropriate\" communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient."}, {"context": " Cultural differences exist within countries (tribal/regional differences, dialects etc.), between religious groups and in organisations or at an organisational level \u2013 where companies, teams and units may have different expectations, norms and idiolects. Families and family groups may also experience the effect of cultural barriers to communication within and between different family members or groups. For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures. In most parts of the world, nodding your head means agreement, shaking your head means no, except in some parts of the world."}, {"context": " Communication to a great extent is influenced by culture and cultural variables. Understanding \"cultural aspects of communication\" refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people. Cultural aspects of communication are of great relevance in today's world which is now a global village, thanks to globalisation. Cultural aspects of communication are the cultural differences which influences communication across borders. Impact of cultural differences on communication components are explained below:"}, {"context": " So in order to have an effective communication across the world it is desirable to have a knowledge of cultural variables effecting communication. According to Michael Walsh and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically \"dyadic\", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and \"contained\" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is \"communal\", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and \"continuous\", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame."}, {"context": " Every information exchange between living organisms \u2014 i.e. transmission of signals that involve a living sender and receiver can be considered a form of communication; and even primitive creatures such as corals are competent to communicate. Nonhuman communication also include cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical transmissions between primitive organisms like bacteria and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. The broad field of animal communication encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Animal communication can be defined as any behavior of one animal that affects the current or future behavior of another animal. The study of animal communication, called \"zoo semiotics\" (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, a great share of prior understanding related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, has been revolutionized."}, {"context": " Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil. Recent research has shown that most of the microorganism plant communication processes are neuron-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores."}, {"context": " Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their growth and development such as the formation of Marcelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with their own and related species as well as with non fungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryote, plants and insects through biochemicals of biotic origin. The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react. This implies that fungal organisms can differentiate between molecules taking part in biotic messages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situation. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known to coordinate different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and production of signaling substances is achieved through interpretation processes that enables the organism to differ between self or non-self, a biotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, and even filter out \"noise\", i.e. similar molecules without biotic content."}, {"context": " Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants and animals, but it is also used by microorganisms like bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing. Through quorum sensing, bacteria are able to sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This can be seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. This was first observed by Fuqua \"et al.\" in marine microorganisms like \"V. harveyi\" and \"V. fischeri\". The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949 The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise."}, {"context": " In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emitter (\"emisor\" in the picture)/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:"}, {"context": " Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within this theory. Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating: In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver's (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars. Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings)."}, {"context": " Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission with three levels of semiotic rules: Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions."}, {"context": " In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of \"communication noise\" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties."}, {"context": " Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society. His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society."}, {"context": " In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise: To face communication noise, redundancy and acknowledgement must often be used. Acknowledgements are messages from the addressee informing the originator that his/her communication has been received and is understood. Message repetition and feedback about message received are necessary in the presence of noise to reduce the probability of misunderstanding."}, {"context": " The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult. Disambiguation attempts to decrease the likelihood of misunderstanding. This is also a fundamental skill in communication processes activated by counselors, psychotherapists, interpreters, and in coaching sessions based on colloquium. In Information Technology, the disambiguation process and the automatic disambiguation of meanings of words and sentences has also been an interest and concern since the earliest days of computer treatment of language."}, {"context": " The academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication is communication studies. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examines how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, semiotic, hermeneutic, and social dimensions of their contexts. Statistics, as a quantitative approach to communication science, has also been incorporated into research on communication science in order to help substantiate claims."}]}, {"title": "Communication & Media Arts High School", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication & Media Arts High School (CMA) is a school of choice and part of Detroit Public Schools in Detroit, Michigan on 14771 Mansfield in between Grand River and Fenkell. Kim Woo Gray was principal when the school opened in 1992 (using the former facilities of St. Mary of Redford High School) until her retirement in 2008. CMA has twenty-three full-time staff and 512 students. CMA is one of four magnet schools in Detroit, others being (Renaissance High School, Cass Technical High School and Detroit School of Arts)."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Bobby Womack album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication is the third studio album by American musician Bobby Womack. The album was released on September 15, 1971, by United Artists Records. It reached No. 5 on the \"Billboard\" R&B chart and No. 20 on the \"Billboard\" Jazz Chart in 1972. It included the hit single, \"That's The Way I Feel About Cha\", which charted at No. 2 on the \"Billboard\" R&B Singles chart and No. 27 on the \"Billboard\" pop chart. The album became Womack's breakthrough spawning the hit single \"That's The Way I Feel About Cha\" and a favorite Womack album track, \"(If You Don't Want My Love) Give It Back\", which Womack recorded three times after the original, the first remake, a slower acoustic version, was issued on the soundtrack of the film, \"Across 110th Street\", and an instrumental by J. J. Johnson's band. The fourth time Womack recorded it was with Rolling Stones singer and musician Ron Wood. Womack recorded his own versions of James Taylor's \"Fire and Rain\", Ray Stevens' \"Everything Is Beautiful\" and featured a spoken word monologue in his cover of the Burt Bacharach and Hal David standard, \"(They Long To Be) Close to You\"."}, {"context": " Actress Pam Grier and veteran singers Janice Singleton and Patrice Holloway sung background on the songs \"Come l'Amore\", \"Give It Back\" and \"Yield Not to Temptation\", a song Womack and his brothers, The Womack Brothers (later The Valentinos), recorded over a decade before with Bobby's older brother Curtis singing lead. Ironically, Bobby's brothers sing background with him on the remaining tracks. The album's instrumental background was provided by the legendary Muscle Shoals team. The track \"Come l'Amore\" was \"covered\" by James Brown in his Lyn Collins duet single, \"What My Baby Needs Now (Is A Little More Loving)\" though the lyrics are different and in different keys."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Bugskull album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication is the seventh studio album by Bugskull, released on November 17, 2009 by Digitalis Recordings. Adapted from the \"Communication\" liner notes."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Hitomi Takahashi song)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communication\" is Hitomi Takahashi's 4th single under the Sony Records (gr8! records) label. The single was released in only one format on July 12, 2006, nearly eight months after her last single Aozora no NAMIDA. \"\" is Hitomi's fourth single, and, as of now, is her least successful single. \"Communication\", the a-side, was being used as the ending theme song for the Japanese TV show \"MUSIC FIGHTER\" during the month of July 2006. Like her past single \"evergreen\", this single has failed to enter the Daily Top 20 on the Oricon Charts, and even failed to enter the Weekly Top 30, its position being a weak #60. Most fans blame this on the lack of promotion Sony gave this single; an example being that there were no TV performances. However, it ranked at #6 on the \"This Week's Sony Music, CD Chart! Best 10!!!\" for the week of 7/10~7/16."}, {"context": " This single marks Takahashi's beginning partnership with ex-Judy and Mary member Takuya, who produced and arranged the first two tracks on the single. The 3rd track is a cover of the song that was originally sung by the Magokoro Brothers. The entire single is described as a \"new breed rock\", which includes the genres of rock, emo, punk, and reggae. Lyrically, the a-side song deals with the notion that communication is extremely important in any kind of relationship, hence the title \"Communication\". The musical aspect of the song showcases Takahashi's quick change from singing pop/rock music to punk/rock music."}, {"context": " Sample of the translated lyrics: The PV, promotional video, for \"Communication\" aired on the channel MO-N SAKIDORI on June 29, 2006 at midnight. Like her last two PVs, this PV was directed by AT, and was filmed at Saitama University. In this PV, which is much more simple than her previous PVs, both Hitomi and her band are showcased in a white room with glass windows in the background. The first half of the PV has Hitomi singing in front of a microphone with large speakers behind her; the camera is constantly switching its view on Hitomi. The next half of the PV shows Hitomi singing around many light bulbs, with the band playing behind her. From there, the PV switches scenes from the white room to the dark room with light bulbs surrounding Hitomi.  Oricon Sales Chart (Japan)"}]}, {"title": "Communication (Jazz Composer's Orchestra album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication is the debut album by the Jazz Composer's Orchestra featuring compositions by Michael Mantler and Carla Bley performed by Paul Bley, Steve Lacy, Jimmy Lyons, Roswell Rudd, Archie Shepp, John Tchicai, Fred Pirtle, Willie Ruff, Ken McIntyre, Robin Kenyatta, Bob Carducci, Kent Carter, Steve Swallow, Milford Graves, and Barry Altschul. The album was released on the Fontana label in 1965."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Karl Bartos album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication released in 2003, is the first solo album of German electronic musician Karl Bartos. According to Karl Bartos, the album is a concept album about electronic media: Some editions of the CD come in a special Burgopak-Case, which is unusual in that the CD tray and booklet both emerge sliding out from opposite sides of the case and must be opened together. The limited edition was issued as CD Extra and contains the video clip for \"I'm the Message\" as well as a download link for two remixes of the song by Felix Da Housecat and Orbital.  The album was re-released on March 25, 2016 on CD and Vinyl, including remastered tracks and the bonus song \"Camera Obscura\"."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Nelson Riddle album)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication is a 1971 album by Nelson Riddle and his orchestra. It was Riddle's first album for German record label MPS preceding \"Changing Colors\" (1973). The Allmusic review by Jason Ankeny awarded the album four and a half stars and said the album is an \"intoxicating mosaic of jazz, pop, and Latin elements...stands as a monumental testament to Riddle's consummate skill as an arranger and his almost alchemical faculty for creating a seamless whole from disparate parts\"."}]}, {"title": "Communication (Power Station song)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communication\" was released as the third single from The Power Station's 1985 debut album. It featured \"Communication\" (Special Club Mix), \"Communication\" (Remix) and \"Murderess\" as the B-side. The remixes were done by Bernard Edwards and Josh Abbey. The video contained an array of footage showing communication in the world with clips of the band performing the song in the studio."}]}, {"title": "Communication Arts (magazine)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Arts is the largest international trade journal of visual communications. Founded in 1959 by Richard Coyne and Robert Blanchard, the magazine's coverage includes graphic design, advertising, photography, illustration and interactive media. The magazine continues to be edited and published under the guidance of Coyne's wife Jean and their son Patrick Coyne. Currently, \"Communication Arts\" (CA) publishes six issues a year and hosts six creative competitions in graphic design, advertising, photography, illustration, typography and interactive media and two Web sites, commarts.com and creativehotlist.com"}, {"context": " The magazine was established in 1959. The first issue debuted in August 1959 as the \"Journal of Commercial Art\". Among a number of innovations, it was the first U.S. magazine printed by offset lithography. Within six months, paid circulation grew to 10,000. Paid advertising, however, was low and CA was not a financial success. After Blanchard left to go into business by himself, Coyne and a small staff continued to write, design, and produce the magazine. Eventually, paid circulation increased to 38,000."}, {"context": " CA's current audited paid circulation is 63,043 and an average of 3.1 people see each issue, giving \"Communication Arts\" an estimated reach of 189,129 readers. To generate additional income and editorial content, the magazine began an annual juried competition in 1960. Within a few years, the annual competition grew, and eventually segmented into four annual competitions: graphic design, advertising, photography and illustration. A fifth competition, interactive, was added in 1995. All the CA competitions are juried by creative professionals.  CA was the first major design publication to launch a Web presence (Communication Arts) in 1995. In addition to showcasing creative work in visual communications, it included job listings. The jobs section grew, and was relaunched in 2001 as a standalone website, Creative Hotlist. These two websites receive approximately three million page views and 250,000 unique visitors per month."}]}, {"title": "Communication Arts Guild", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Arts Guild or CAG is an organisation dedicated to the Indian advertising industry. Located in Mumbai, this is the only organisation which has the complete record of the growth of Indian Advertising since Independence. CAG was founded in 1948. It created its own Constitution, in 1950, registered under the Indian Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860. The vision was to create a networking platform within the fraternity of Visual Communication Industry. CAG distributes a number of awards, including: the Cub Trophies for communication arts and design students; scholarships for pre-final year Art students; the Guru of the Year award; and the CAG Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame members include:"}, {"context": " The Cag Shield is a cordial play of short matches between different agencies within the advertising fraternity. Cag developed a connection with individual designers by the awards and workshops or seminars but they wanted to grow bigger. To get agencies' interaction, with each other and Cag, they started this sporty tradition and is continuing even today. This brings the agencies to interact and open up to each other in a group activity apart from advertising. First published in 1950, \"Cag Annuals\" were design magazines published yearly. They showcased advertising works in that particular year and also mentioned the Cag winners, Hall of Fame and Young Cags of that year. They also had the photographic record of the events in that year, especially the award show."}]}, {"title": "Communication Break", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communication Break\" is Aya Kamiki's first major single, and the title track was the ending theme song of the \"Count Down TV\" show during March 2006. This single debuted at #48 on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart and sold 7,825 copies in total. Initial week estimate: 2,443 Total estimate: 7,825"}]}, {"title": "Communication Breakdown", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communication Breakdown\" is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, from their 1969 debut album \"Led Zeppelin\". It was released as the B-side of \"Good Times Bad Times\", the group's first single in the US. A promotional video was released, with the group miming to the recording; it is included on the \"Led Zeppelin DVD\" (2003). The song was one of the first worked on by the band, shortly after formation and before they had played any gigs. It developed from a guitar riff played by Jimmy Page, while the rest of the band wrote the song around it. Bassist John Paul Jones later said \"This is Page's riff \u2013 you can tell instantly\". Singer Robert Plant could not receive a songwriting credit owing to a previous record contract, and consequently it was credited simply to the other three band members."}, {"context": " \"Communication Breakdown\" was part of the group's initial live set in 1968. It was played at every gig until 1970, after which it was featured as an encore. The group played it on at least one show for all subsequent tours, including their residency at Earl's Court, London in 1975, the second appearance at the 1979 Knebworth Festival, and the band's final tour in 1980. Plant played it on some of his solo tours, while Jones performed it live with Diamanda Gal\u00e1s in 1994. On the \"Led Zeppelin BBC Sessions\", released in 1997, this song was featured three times, each with a slightly different improvisation by the group. Three live versions\u2013taken from performances at the TV program \"Tous en sc\u00e8ne\" in Paris in 1969, at \"Danmarks Radio\" in 1969 and at the Royal Albert Hall in 1970\u2013can also be seen on the \"Led Zeppelin DVD\". The version of \"Good Times Bad Times/Communication Breakdown\" released on 15 April 2014, on iTunes, is from 10 October 1969 in Paris, on the European Tour of Autumn 1969."}, {"context": " The Dictators' bassist Andy Shernoff states that Page's guitar riff of rapid downstrokes in \"Communication Breakdown\" was an inspiration for the Ramones' guitarist Johnny Ramone's downstroke guitar style. Ramone stated in the documentary \"Ramones: The True Story\" that he built up skill at his downstroke playing style by playing the song over and over again for the bulk of his early career. The song is noted for its usage in motion pictures, particularly in a military context. In episode \"G.I. (Annoyed Grunt)\" of \"The Simpsons\", during a scene which shows military recruitment, a group of soldiers play the guitar riff of \"Communication Breakdown\".  \"Communication Breakdown\" is included in \"Blender\"'s 2003 list of \"The 1,001 Greatest Songs to Download Right Now!\" Citations Sources"}]}, {"title": "Communication Breakdown (film)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Breakdown is a 2004 independent motion picture directed by Richard O'Sullivan, who also wrote the script along with the film's star, Dan Lashley, and produced by John Edmonds Kozma (producer of Nick Cassavetes' Kentucky Rhapsody\"). The movie also stars Willie Repoley, Meredith Sause, Aleks West, Blair Peery, Brian Heffron, Jasmin St. Claire, Katie Lester, Satu Rautaharju, and Aubrey Goss."}]}, {"title": "Communication Canada", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communications Canada was an agency of the Department of Public Works and Government Services in the Government of Canada. Its responsibility was primarily for keeping federal government departments and their agencies connected with Canadian citizens. Responsibility for developing the federal government's web presence and primary web site rested with Communication Canada. The agency was created in the mid-1990s following the 1995 Quebec referendum, ostensibly to promote federal government communications with all of Canada, however many Canadians viewed it as a government propaganda agency. Communication Canada became linked to the Sponsorship Scandal and was disbanded in a federal government reorganization at the end of the fiscal year, effective March 31, 2004."}]}, {"title": "Communication Disorders Quarterly", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Disorders Quarterly is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal that covers research on typical and atypical communication, from oral language development to literacy in clinical and educational settings. The editor-in-chief is Judy Montgomery (Chapman University). It was established in 1976 and is currently published by SAGE Publications in association with the Hammill Institute on Disabilities. \"Communications Disorders Quarterly\" is abstracted and indexed in: According to the \"Journal Citation Reports\", its 2014 impact factor is 0.66, ranking it 63 out of 69 journals in the category 'Rehabilitation."}]}, {"title": "Communication Education", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Education is a quarterly academic journal covering speech and communication on college campuses. It is published by Taylor & Francis on behalf of the National Communication Association."}]}, {"title": "Communication Function Classification System", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) for individuals with cerebral palsy (CP) is a five-level classification system which began development at Michigan State University and currently under further refinement at the University of Wyoming. The research, organized and conducted by Dr. Mary Jo Cooley Hidecker, Ph.D., CCC-A/SLP, follows two widely used classification systems for cerebral palsy: the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) and the Manual Ability Classification System (MACS). Dr. Ray Kent of the University of Wisconsin\u2013Madison, Dr. Peter Rosenbaum of McMaster University, and Dr. Nigel Paneth of Michigan State University are also an integral part of this research."}, {"context": " Design and development of the CFCS addressed a number of issues in cerebral palsy including a general lack of knowledge regarding the communication abilities of individuals with CP. The 5 CFCS levels are used instead of the more vague labels of \"mild, moderate, severe, profound\" difficulties. The system is designed to be a quick and simple instrument used by a person familiar with the individual to be classified. Variables of communication ability used within the CFCS include sender roles (being able to communicate a message to someone), receiver roles (being able to understand a message from someone), pace of communication, and the degree of familiarity with a communication partner. The CFCS follows the World Health Organization's (WHO's) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)."}, {"context": " Possible benefits of the CFCS include describing functional communication performance using a common language among professionals and laypersons and recognizing the use of all effective methods of communication including augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). The CFCS can be used in research projects as a way of describing the communication performance of participants. The CFCS can be used clinically by parents and professionals to open-up discussions regarding how different communication environments, partners, and/or communication tasks might affect an individual's CFCS level and to choose goals to improve the person's communication effectiveness."}]}, {"title": "Communication Heights", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Heights () are a group of highly eroded ice-free elevations to the south of Midnight Plateau in the Darwin Mountains. The feature rises to about between Conant Valley and Grant Valley. It was so named because features in the area are named for communication workers."}]}, {"title": "Communication History Museum", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Former Communications History Museum was a museum supported by Teo LT AB, former AB Lietuvos Telekomas, in the Old Town of Kaunas, Lithuania. The building is an old merchant house, where were storages for grain to be exported. The building was taken in the use of the communications from 1830's in a form of the horse post and an inn according to the project by Joseph Poussier. It was one of the largest post stations in Europe. In the end of the 19th century Kaunas City Museum was situated in the building too."}, {"context": " After the Second World War the Soviet aviation unit took the building in its use. In the 1990s the buildings were handed to the Kaunas Association of Communications Companies and the reconstruction was made according to Saul\u0117 Mickevi\u010dien\u0117's plan. The Communication History Museum opened it doors to the public in March 1994. A visitor himself may also test the operation of some old exhibits at the museum. The exhibitions starts with post history. Especial attention is paid to the beginning of the postal services in the 16th century and its development to the 19th century."}, {"context": " In another part of the Museum there are rooms for electrical communications beginning from telegraphy, telephones, radios and television and in the end the satellite communications. There is one of the first electric communication devices that started to be used in Lithuania - S. Morse telegraph apparatus. Especially large is the exhibition of the radio receivers. An interesting detail is a Soviet television set manufactured in 1947. As for the Soviet times, there is electronic computing machine R\u016bta-110 manufactured in Lithuania by Sigma company in 1970. In Lithuania was produced also a personal computer called Santaka.  In the end of the tour some Benefon phones can be seen in a corner. The archaeological research has uncovered a forging kiln, which could have been used for casting bells or artillery cannons."}]}, {"title": "Communication Linking Protocol", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Linking Protocol (CLP) is a communications protocol used to communicate with many devices using the Motorola ReFLEX network. CLP allows a user to direct a ReFlex capable device to send or receive messages. CLP is used by Advantra's ReFLEX devices. Advantra's ReFLEX product line was purchased by Inilex who now manufactures the devices."}]}, {"title": "Communication Managers' Association", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communication Managers' Association (CMA) was a trade union representing managers in the United Kingdom, principally those working for the Post Office. The union was founded in 1952 with the merger of the Post Office Controlling Officers' Association, the London Postal Superintending Officers' Association, and the Central Telegraph Superintending Officers' Association, the three unions have co-operated since 1916 in the Federation of Post Office Supervisory Officers. Initially named the Association of Post Office Controlling Officers (APOCO), it was joined by the Postal Inspectors' Association in 1959, and in 1968 decided to rename itself as the Post Office Management Staff Association (POMA), to reflect its broader membership.  The union affiliated to the Trades Union Congress in 1966. It was also affiliated to the Federation of Post Office Unions, the National Federation of Professional Workers, and the Postal Telegraph and Telephone International. In 1981, it took its final name, the \"Communication Managers' Association\". By 1982, the union had 19,500 members, and published a monthly journal, \"New Management\". In 1998, it merged into the Manufacturing, Science and Finance union."}]}, {"title": "Communication Monographs", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Monographs is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering research on human communication. Articles cover areas such as media studies, interpersonal and relational communication, organizational and group communication, health and family communication, rhetoric, language and social interaction, intercultural communication and cultural studies. The journal is published by Routledge on behalf of the National Communication Association and the current editor is Kory Floyd, professor of communication at the University of Arizona. From 1937 to 1975 it was published as \"Speech Monographs\".  The journal is abstracted and indexed in According to the \"Journal Citation Reports\", the journal has a 2010 impact factor of 2.029."}]}, {"title": "Communication Moon Relay", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communication Moon Relay project (also known as simply Moon Relay, or, alternatively, Operation Moon Bounce) was a telecommunication project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a natural communications satellite\u00a0\u2014 a technique known as Earth\u2013Moon\u2013Earth communication (EME). Most of the project's work took place during the 1950s at the United States Naval Research Laboratory. Operation Moon Relay was spun off from a classified military espionage program known as Passive Moon Relay (PAMOR), which sought to eavesdrop on Soviet military radar signals reflected from the Moon."}, {"context": " Communication Moon Relay grew out of many ideas and concepts in radio espionage. Some impetus for the project was provided by post-World War II efforts to develop methods of tracking radio signals, particularly those originating in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Other sources included earlier proposals to use the Moon as a radio wave reflector, which date back to 1928. The first proof of this concept was the Project Diana program of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1946, which detected radar waves bounced off the Moon. This attracted the attention of Donald Menzel. Menzell was a staff member of the Harvard College Observatory and a former United States Navy Reserve commander, who proposed that the Navy undertake a program to use the Moon as a secure communications satellite."}, {"context": " Prior to the Moon Relay project, long distance wireless communication around the curve of the Earth was conducted by skywave (\"skip\") transmission, in which radio waves are refracted by the Earth's ionosphere, which was sometimes disrupted by solar flares and geomagnetic storms. Before artificial satellites, the Moon provided the only reliable celestial object from which to reflect radio waves to communicate between points on opposite sides of the Earth. The developments in Moon circuit communications eventually came to the attention of James Trexler, a radio engineer at the Naval Research Laboratory. His interest was piqued by a paper published by researchers at an ITT laboratory. Trexler developed plans for a system designed to intercept Soviet radar signals by detecting the transmissions that bounced off the Moon. This program, codenamed \"Joe,\" began making regular observations in August 1949. Within a year, \"Joe\" was made an official Navy intelligence program, the Passive Moon Relay (PAMOR)."}, {"context": " In September 1950, a new parabolic antenna for the PAMOR project was completed at Stump Neck, Maryland. The first tests of this antenna were impressive; the returning signal was of much higher fidelity than expected. This presented the possibility of using a Moon circuit as a communications circuit. Unfortunately for PAMOR, collecting Soviet radar signals would require a larger antenna. Efforts began to have such an antenna constructed at Sugar Grove, West Virginia. With the PAMOR project requiring a larger antenna, the Stump Neck antenna was pushed into service for testing whether communication via the Moon was possible. This marked the emergence of the Moon Relay as a separate project. Test transmissions between Stump Neck and Washington, D.C. were carried out; the first satellite transmission of voice occurred on July 24, 1954. These were followed by the first transcontinental test of the system on November 20, 1955; the receiving site was the U.S. Navy Electronics Laboratory in San Diego, California. After corrections to reduce signal loss, the transmissions were extended to Wahiawa, Hawaii."}, {"context": " The Navy received the new system favorably. A Navy contract for the project soon followed the successful tests, and, among other things, it was recommended that American submarines use Moon-reflection paths for communications to shore. The Moon Relay project was soon transferred to the Communications Section of the Radar Division of the Naval Research Laboratory. Under this department, the system was upgraded to use the ultra high frequency (UHF) band. The experimental system was transformed into a fully operational lunar relay system linking Hawaii with Washington, DC, which became functional in 1959. The new system was officially inaugurated in January 1960, when Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke sent a message to Commander, Pacific Fleet Felix Stump using the system."}, {"context": " The finished system used two sets of transmitters at Annapolis, Maryland and the Opana Radar Site in Hawaii and two sets of receivers at Cheltenham, Maryland and Wahiawa, Hawaii. It was later expanded to accommodate ship-to-shore transmissions to and from the USS \"Oxford\" (AGTR-1). The Moon Relay system became obsolete in the later 1960s as the Navy implemented its artificial satellite communication system. However, the information gleaned from the project in fact made the later artificial system possible. Additionally, the equipment used in the Communications Moon Relay project was of much use to U.S. Navy astronomers, as they used it to examine the Moon when the Moon was not in a position conducive to radio transmission. Although relatively short-lived, the Moon Relay served as a bridge to modern American military satellite systems."}]}, {"title": "Communication Problems", "paragraphs": [{"context": " \"Communication Problems\" is the first episode of the second series of BBC sitcom \"Fawlty Towers\" and the seventh episode overall. It is also known as \"Mrs Richards\". On 2 December 2016, the episode was re-aired on BBC One in memory of cast member Andrew Sachs. Mrs Richards, a short-sighted, deaf, and short-tempered old woman (but who ironically accuses others of being blind and deaf), arrives at the hotel and instantly starts arguing with Polly about who is being served first at reception in the lobby. Polly mischievously asks Manuel to assist Mrs Richards and his poor English combined with her poor hearing leads her to believe that the hotel manager is named \"C.K. Watt\", aged forty. Meanwhile, Basil gets a horse racing tip from a satisfied customer and, although Sybil does not approve of Basil gambling, he plans to discreetly bet on it anyway."}, {"context": " Mrs Richards then complains to Basil about her room. She is dissatisfied because the room is cold, her radio does not work (it does, she just cannot hear it), the bath is too small for her liking (as she cannot see it properly) and the view from her window is uninteresting (as she cannot see it properly either). Mrs Richards demands a reduction in the price, to which Basil responds softly: \"60% if you turn it [her hearing aid] on\" (she refuses to use her hearing aid because it drains the battery), but then directs her to speak with Sybil, who will be far more patient with her. He also secretly asks Manuel to go to the betting shop and make a bet on the horse, which subsequently wins the race. Manuel collects the \u00a375 winnings and gives them to Polly to give to Basil, just as Mrs Richards demands lavatory paper, and her referring to it as \"paper\" leads Polly, assuming she wants writing paper, to tell her that it is kept in the lounge. Mrs Richards is convinced Polly is being rude and complains to Basil, who again fails to deliver the message as Mrs Richards is not using her hearing aid and cannot read Basil's writing as she is not wearing her glasses, which she does not know are on her head. Meanwhile, Basil collects his winnings."}, {"context": " By remarkable coincidence, Mrs Richards later announces that \u00a385 is missing from her room, and she is convinced someone has stolen it. Sybil, who saw Polly counting Basil's money in the office, assumes that Polly found it. So as not to give away Basil's gambling, Polly says she herself won it on the horse, although her forgetting the name of the horse makes Sybil suspicious. Foolishly, Basil instructs Manuel to pretend he knows nothing about the bet, and gives the money to the Major for safekeeping. Unsurprisingly, when Basil asks the Major for the money the next morning, the senile old man has forgotten that Basil gave it to him. Eventually he produces it, but when he declares to have \"found it\" in front of Sybil and Mrs Richards, the latter is convinced it is hers. Basil is horrified as Sybil hands his money over to Mrs Richards, who is annoyed to notice that it is \u00a310 short. Basil tries to persuade her otherwise, but is hindered by the Major and Manuel: the Major having entirely forgotten and Manuel merely saying \"I know nothing.\" Distraught, Basil weeps over his lost winnings and is about to take the missing \u00a310 from the till when a delivery man arrives with a vase for Mrs Richards and the \u00a395 which she left behind in the shop \u2013 the money she thought had been stolen. Basil is elated and gives Mrs Richards her remaining \u00a310, leaving him still \u00a310 up, but in his excitement, he does not put the money away. When Sybil sees Basil with the money, she quizzes him and Polly chimes in that it is her money that she won on the horse. Basil adds that he is putting it in the safe for her. Unfortunately, the Major suddenly blurts out, right in front of Sybil that he has remembered that Basil gave him the money last night and he won it on a horse (forgetting that it was supposed to be a secret). In horror, Basil drops and breaks Mrs Richards's vase and the episode closes with Sybil repaying Mrs. Richards the \u00a375 cost of the vase with the money Basil had won, leaving Basil with only \u00a310 from his successful bet.  Episode-credited cast: With: Interior scenes of this episode were recorded on 21 January 1979, in Studio TC1 of the BBC Television Centre, before a live audience."}]}, {"title": "Communication Quarterly", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Quarterly is a peer-reviewed academic journal that is published five times a year by Routledge on behalf of the Eastern Communication Association. It covers research in the communication discipline. It was established in 1953 as Today's Speech, before obtaining its current title in 1976. The editor-in-chief is Chris R. Morse (Bryant University)."}]}, {"title": "Communication Research (journal)", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Research is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of communication studies that explore the processes, antecedents, and consequences of communication in a broad range of societal systems. The editors-in-chief are Silvia Knobloch-Westerwick (Ohio State University) and Jennifer Gibbs (University of California, Santa Barbara). It was established 1974 and is currently published by SAGE Publications. \"Communication Research\" is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and the Social Sciences Citation Index. According to the \"Journal Citation Reports\", its 2017 impact factor is 3.391, ranking it 3 out of 84 journals in the category \"Communication\"."}]}, {"title": "Communication Research Reports", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Research Reports is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering communication studies. It was established in 1984 and is published by Routledge. The journal specializes in the publication of reports-style manuscripts using social scientific methods (such as quantitative data analysis). The most common type of manuscripts published are research reports, which often feature \"scales, causal models, novel correlations, and immediate observations \u2014 constitute the 'nuts and bolts' of human communication...\"  In 2016, the journal was rated as the third-most central to the field of human communication. The journal is abstracted and indexed in EBSCO databases, PsycINFO, and Scopus. The founding editor-in-chief of the journal was James C. McCroskey (Pennsylvania State University). For vols. 31-33, Don Winslow Stacks (University of Miami) was the editor. The current editor (vols. 34-36) is Nicholas David Bowman (West Virginia University)."}]}, {"title": "Communication Service for the Deaf", "paragraphs": [{"context": " Communication Service for the Deaf is a non-profit company based in Austin, Texas. It is a subsidiary of South Dakota Association of the Deaf founded in 1975. CSD provides services nationwide, and is a major provider of Telecommunications Relay Service and Video Relay Service in cooperation with Sprint Nextel. CSD's primary service offerings include Sign Language Interpreting and Translation services for the Deaf and hard of hearing. CSD offers ASL interpreting through live, on-site interpreters, Video Remote Interpreting (VRI), and a national marketplace of certified ASL interpreters called Vineya. Vineya can be seen at www.GoVineya.com.  CSD's sign language interpreting services offers ASL Interpretation for doctors, businesses, schools and more. Vineya has over 1,200 interpreters in the United States, and covers all 50 states. CSD is the largest interpreting agency in the United States. Vineya is the first and largest ASL Interpreting marketplace of its kind. It operates a nationwide network of offices, and major relay centers."}]}, {"title": "Communication Services Sector Reshuffle", "paragraphs": [{"context": " The Communication Services Sector Reshuffle was a reorganisation of the services sector of the S&P 500 Index in the United States that took place on September 21, 2018. After the close of the market on Friday September 21, 2018 the technology sectors of the S&P 500 Index and the Global Industry Classification Standard underwent a huge change that reshuffled what sector certain telecommunication and information technology companies would be placed. The \u201cFaang\u201d companies are the tech giants such as Amazon, Netflix and Alphabet; so this \u201cde-faanging\u201d is a unique reshuffling of these companies to properly fit them into new sectors because they have been the companies that have helped the U.S. Stock Market so much in these past five years. The overlap of these companies caused certain sectors to gain too much weight in the S&P 500 and this reshuffling promised a boost in trading volume for all companies involved and effected by the new sector change. This new sector, known as Communication Services, will include some major information technology companies such as Facebook and Google's parent company, Alphabet, as well as large Consumer Discretionary companies, such as Netflix and Comcast. On top of these two shifts included a complete move for the Telecommunication Services sector into the new Communication Services sector. This new sector is important because it recognizes the how media, telecommunications and different internet companies assimilated regardless of their overall differences in their services provided. The MSCI plans to follow a similar reshuffling throughout October and into November to match this reshuffling of the S&P 500 and GICS. This Communication Services sector is a revamping of a smaller sector, Telecommunications Services, that included Verizon and AT&T but will now include at least eighteen companies from the Information Technology and Consumer Discretionary sectors along with a slight name change. Lastly, this reshuffling is so important because it is the second time since 1999 a sector has been added to a stock indices."}, {"context": " When the S&P 500 and GICS announced this major tech reshuffling last year, they were met with much controversy and questioning from those concerned about dividend yields and protection of their investments. They responded by saying \u201c(Reclassification) is a step towards acknowledging the convergence of telecommunications, media, and select internet companies and the overlapping services rendered by these companies, within the GICS Structure.\u201d Basically, these information tech companies as well as different telecommunication, media and internet companies have all grown so large that they deserve a unique sector to keep the weight of the tech sector from expanding too large as well as recognize the similarities in services among one another. The information technology sector is one of the biggest sectors on the w:S&P Dow Jones Indices. Seven of the larger information technology companies that make up about a fifth of the information technology sector of the w:S&P 500 Index moved to the Communication Services sector because this Information Technology sector has grown so largely, taking up nearly a quarter of the total weight of the w:S&P 500 Index. On top of this sector being reshuffled, sixteen companies, taking up nearly twenty-two percent of the Consumer Discretionary sector were moved to the Communication Services sector in order to create more concentration in each sector involved because all of these info tech and consumer discretionary companies have gained so much weight on the U.S. w:Stock Market. On top of all of these reasons, the tech sector had its first fall in over a month from February to March 2018. Overall, this new sector takes up about ten percent of the S&P 500, including twenty-three major companies and having a market capital of about $2.8 Trillion."}, {"context": " This sector reclassification was created to boost the trading volume of the S&P 500 by twenty billion dollars in shares. Each sector was affected in different ways due to certain powerhouse companies leaving the sector, causing weights of other companies in that sector to rise. Overall, more than 26 companies in three different sectors were affected by this reshuffling into the new Communication Services sector. First, the Telecommunications Services sector, which only takes up two percent of the S&P 500 Indices, basically dissipated and the companies in this sector, such as Verizon, AT&T and CenturyLink moved into the larger Communications Services sector. Next, thirteen companies from the w:Consumer Discretionary Sector such as CBS, Disney, Netflix, Comcast and 21st Century Fox moved into the Communications Services sector. The weight of this sector on the S&P 500 decreased from about thirteen percent to nearly ten percent. On top of these changes, the Information Technology sector suffered the biggest decrease in weight on the S&P 500 due to the shift of powerhouse companies into this new Communications Services sector. With the leave of the giant tech companies Facebook and Alphabet, the w:Information Technology sector lost about five percent of its weight on the S&P 500, decreasing from over twenty-six percent to about twenty-one percent."}, {"context": " With so many enormous, influential companies involved in this reshuffling, many other companies were affected that were not even involved in the reshuffling. Most companies not involved but impacted by this reshuffle increased their weight in their own sector due to the shift out of their sector by other companies bearing a large weight in their sector. For example, in the Information Technology sector, with the move out by Facebook, Alphabet and Twitter, Microsoft was able to increase its weight in the sector by three percent moving from thirteen to nearly sixteen, benefitting those w:Investors with stocks in Microsoft. Microsoft also increased their weight from this reshuffle due to the move of eBay from the Information Technology sector into the Consumer Discretionary sector. Another example is the increase in Amazon's weight in the Consumer Discretionary sector from twenty-six percent to nearly a third after the move of major companies such as Netflix, Disney and CBS into the new sector. In regards to the effects of companies in the Telecommunications Services sector, many stockholders were not very pleased with this shift. What made this sector so appealing is that they had a high w:dividend yield, and more defensive qualities to protect investors from suffering higher losses from drops in the stock market. The shift from telecommunications services to communications services caused a decrease in dividend yield for companies from about five and a half percent to barely more than a percent."}, {"context": " Due to the strength and weight of the companies involved in the reshuffling, the US w:Stock market trading volume skyrocketed on Friday September 21, 2018. On Friday, about eleven billion shares were in movement between all the companies involved with and affected by the reshuffling, the largest trading day since February 2018. Both companies involved in and affected by the reshuffling saw increases in trading volume, especially the bigger companies involved. For example, Facebook, Alphabet and Netflix all saw increases in trading volume due to increased pressure to the sell, most likely the cause of larger sector funds moving towards smaller ones. Although the S&P 500 ended relatively flat on Friday, while Facebook and Alphabet fell nearly two points per cent, the week end for the S&P 500 showed a month's high of positive 0.8 per cent, being led by none other than the technology stocks, who continuously have brought the S&P 500 out of a recession. These numbers are fairly good considering over a month earlier Facebook had the biggest single day plummet of any company in U.S. history, on top of an increase in the fear of an international w:Trade war in the United States with China and an increase in U.S. w:Interest rates. Taking all of these into account, the fact that trade volume was positive with a fear of an international trade war signifies just how strong investors felt about this reshuffling because people usually fear buying and selling stocks even in the tech industry when an international trade war is eminent. Lastly, this S&P 500 sector reshuffling is the largest of its kind within the w:GICS since its institution in 1999."}, {"context": " The effects of the reshuffling of these tech giants into the new Communication Services sector do not stop at direct companies and sectors.\u00a0 They have a larger impact on the overall market because so many of these companies being relocated has a steep potential for growth in w:Exchange-traded Funds while increasing exchange traded products.\u00a0 An ETF is a \u201cmarketable w:Security that tracks a w:Stock market index, a w:commodity, a bonds, or a basket of assets.\u201d \u00a0A large portion of these ETFs are created to track specific stock indices and their sectors\u2019 activity but do not actually follow stock of a certain company. \u00a0Because the w:Global Industry Classification Standard decided to commit to this reshuffling, they forced many large investment management firms and others providing ETFs to sell huge amounts of their investors shares in the information technology and consumer discretionary sectors as well as telecommunications sector due to the move of large companies out of these sectors. An example of this occurred with the w:State Street Global Advisors, a strong investment management firm with ETFs surrounding the communications services, consumer discretion and information technology sectors of the S&P 500. They created an ETF for the new communication services sector June 19, 2018 and has already made $252 million in assets. They also plan to rebalance their consumer discretionary and information tech ETFs by selling assets of their already profitable communications services ETF and allocate them to the info tech and consumer discretionary ETFs. This occurred due to the sale of millions of shares of Alphabet and Facebook because of their move out of the Information Technology sector. On the other hand, the SSGA did not have to sell its shares of the telecommunications sector because although it did not have specific ETFs tracking this sector, management chose to anyways because certain companies in this sector could affect in their various tech sector ETFs. \u00a0On top of SSGA, other investment companies such as Vanguard followed by putting limits on their involvement in ETFs that track the MSCI.\u00a0 They did this due to fear of the increased strength and mostly overlapping in this new sector between telecommunications, media, and internet companies, while the telecommunications sector diminished from a mere three companies. \u00a0These concerns come about because they leave the telecommunications vulnerable for huge changes of its constituents as well as this new sector having too many companies providing similar services, thus possibly lowering trading volume. The results have not yet shown this lowering of trade volume and overall trade volume is supposed to increase even larger than the already 10.9 billion shares traded the Friday before this policy was enacted."}]}]}